Сап, Двач!
Я знаю, как ты, дорогой анон, относишься к тянкам и их писанине, но не спеши сагать этот тред. Послушай мою прохладную, и, может, твоё сердце оттает, а зад остынет.

Я тян,и вот моя история.
Лет 10 назад я переехала в дом, где живу по сей день. И есть у меня сосед снизу, мой одногодка. Мы по детству дружили, потом учились в одной школе в параллельных классах, потом поступили в разные универы, но всё это время хорошо общались, когда встречались на лестничной клетке. В школе я пилила за него домашки по математике и программированию, в универе выручала перед экзаменами по матану.
Друзьями мы не были, но отношения всегда складывались ровно-хорошие. Не дружили, потому что очень разный круг общения и социальный слой. Его семья намного богаче моей.
Я, добрая душа, даже когда-то лет в 14 учила его целоваться. Ну, то есть ему очень нравилась девушка, и он очень боялся к ней подкатить. И попросил меня. Я в то время была беззаботной и как-то решила, что надо выручать человека. Не моя и не его вина, что девчонки взрослеют раньше. Тем более он был забавным и полноватым. Я не воспринимала, что делаю одолжение, просто хотела помочь.
Потом у него появилась девушка после 11-ого класса, и много лет они были вместе.
Не знаю, почему я всегда ему помогала, просто, наверно, потому что могла. И мне было не сложно.

Прежде чем перейти к рассказу о нынешней ситуации, стоит внести еще некоторую ясность:
Не смотря на то, что у него обеспеченная семья, он очень долго отказывался умнеть и был каким-то ребенком. Не учился особо, ничего не делал. Просто тусил.
Я тоже тусила, но как-то по-другому. Не по клубам, а с друзьями в походах. Читала всякие умные книжки, поступала в универ на актуальную специальность своими силами. У меня просто не было возможности тусить и ни о чем не беспокоиться так, как это делает золотая молодежь.
Короче говоря, мы жили в параллельных мирах. Не смотря на то, что жили в одном доме.

И вот неделю назад он мне написал и позвал гулять. Я, естественно, спросила, что ему нужно. Он сказал, что просто так. Еще так удивился, мол, что если он пишет, так сразу что-то нужно.
И, тут произошло нечто странное, он, блин, повзрослел. Мне реально было о чем с ним поговорить, это было очень странно. Мы прообщались часа три, гуляя вокруг дома. И я почувствовала, что ему тоже со мной интересно. Потому что мне было интересно слушать рассказы о всяких бизнесах, о том, как это все работает. Совершенно другая среда ведь. А он привык общаться с клубными девушками, поэтому для него тоже было непривычно.
Мы погуляли еще пару раз. И начали просачиваться еще всё более странные диалоги. Что-то вроде "Ну так когда мы будем вместе? Давай переспим. Прикинь, как это удобно и круто."
Странная постановка вопроса. Я отвечала, что никогда. И что вообще мне это не интересно.
Он продолжал давить на то, что все девушки этого хотят. И чего я сопротивляюсь, если все равно у меня парня нет. А у него нет девушки, нам интересно друг с другом. Так почему бы не переспать?
Меня эти разговоры как-то выводили из себя что ли. Потому что ну в таком разрезе со мной вообще никто никогда себе не позволял говорить, а он еще спрашивал почему нет и заставлял аргументировать.
Кароче, эта мелочь меня бесила, но в целом общаться было интересно. Но он продолжал постоянно выспрашивать, мол когда уже.
Была еще одна деталь, он мне как-то полвечера рассказывал о такой крутой (по его мнению) книжке "Мужчина всегда прав". И мы обсуждали то, что он там прочитал. Я этому не предала значения.
С каждым вечером, он мне импонировал всё больше, но было в этом что-то... Какой-то подвох. С одной стороны я понимала, что ему нравлюсь, но с другой стороны вот этот пунктик на счет переспать как-то не вписывался в стройные полуухаживания.
И вчера я решила, что ответ кроется в этой книжке и прочла ее.
Суть книги в том, что тнн, и выебать можно любую. Просто найти подход.
Если вкратце, то он делал всё по пунктам, как там написано. И мне стало обидно.
Ну, правда, по-человечески обидно. Я неплохая девушка, всегда хорошо к нему относилась. А он выбрал меня в качестве подопытного кролика. То есть уж удобнее соседки ничего быть не может, чтобы практиковаться.
Знаешь, анон, я не успела нафантазировать себе свадьбу, семерых детей и смерть в один день. Потому что всё время чувствовала подвох. Но... Разве это правильный поступок?

А теперь собственно вопрос. Что теперь делать?
Хитро вынести мог, пользуясь этой книжкой? Просто забить?
Рассказать ему напрямую и сделать с ним разбор ошибок?
Посоветуй, милый Двач.

Буду бампать телкой из Соседки.

>>118623740 (OP)
>"Мужчина всегда прав"
Это сразу зашквар, нихуя он не поумнел.

>>118624149
Он нашел для себя понятную и доступную литературу.

Поумнел он в другом. Стал делать свой бизнес, реальнее смотрит на жизнь.
А то, что книжку вредную прочел, так это...Не показатель.

Вопрос в другом. Что с ним делать?

Бамп

>>118624400
Ничего, ты подопытный кролик, отточит на тебе навык и пойдет подкатывать к той, которую боится потерять, если что пойдет не так.

Если тебе интересна интрижка на неделю и стать запасным вариантом выходного дня (у его избранницы месячные, например), то флаг в руки.

>>118623740 (OP)
Извини, ОП, но я не стану давать тебе никаких советов. Твой пост вызвал у меня отвращение. Не потому, что ты тян, а потому, что, судя по этому посту, ты - меркантильный, скучный и серый человек, а мне неприятно видеть таких людей и вообще осознавать их существование, да ещё и на сайте, где их в принципе быть не должно.
Он, конечно, поступил с тобой отвратительно (а тот факт, что он тебе ещё и название книги сказал, по которой он действует, и вовсе выдаёт в нём недалёкого человека), но я считаю, что люди вроде тебя заслуживают такого отношения.
А ответил я в этот тред для того, чтобы проверить, забанен я или нет.

>>118624681
Написал, будто бы я где-то сказала, что мне нужны с ним отношения. Я не запала на него, я его черт знает сколько знаю. И все его косяки знаю.

И суть в том, что он решил ебать всё, что движется.
А опробовать теорию решил на мне.
Спустя столько лет моего к нему доброго отношения.
Вот в чем обидка.
То, что на какой-то момент времени он мне понравился, не значит, что я тряпкой буду валяться. Ну же.

>>118623740 (OP)
тебе лет 25 (24) ?

мальчик из обеспеченной семьи?

обидно, что он, при всех его достоинствах, такая мразь?

Хочешь научится переделать его?

Так он же сказал, с чего нужно начинать :)))

Ну а бабе можно отомстить миллионами способов...

>>118624971
Ну так ничего и не делай. Забила и забыла.

>>118624900
И в каком я месте меркантильная, мой юный друг?
Речь не обо мне идет сейчас, не надо переходить на личности.
А если тебе что-то неприятно, то уебывай.

>>118624400
>Стал делать свой бизнес
Я тоже делал дохуя бизнесов, это нихуя не показатель взрослости. Но если у него этот бизнес успешный и на ногах уже пару лет, то базара нет. Может он как мажор делает бизнес на папкины деньги, да подогревается этим, потому и на плаву этот бизнес, запросто такое бывает.
>показатель
Показатель то что он воспользовался этой книгой, это уже показывает его уровень образования.

>>118625125
Да мне не обидно.
Я его знаю с 10 лет. Мы все детство пробегали по этому самому пресловутому двору. Он не такая уж мразь, которой хочет казаться.

Я спросила совета, как лучше поступить.
Пока у меня есть желание только вынести ему мозг с помощью этой же книжки.

>>118625166
> И в каком я месте меркантильная, мой юный друг?
Да хоть пост свой собственный перечитай, взрослая ты моя.
> Не смотря на то, что у него обеспеченная семья, он очень долго отказывался умнеть и был каким-то ребенком.
> Читала всякие умные книжки
> поступала в универ на актуальную специальность
> мне было интересно слушать рассказы о всяких бизнесах

>>118624149
Двачую. Зашквар.

>>118625478
Ты видишь только то, что хочешь видеть.
Я пыталась донести мысль, что у нас разные ситуации. Что мне нужно заботиться о себе самой, и жить своим умом. У меня нет подстилки из родительского капитала.
И то, что мне интересно, как работает другая, незнакомая мне среда, вполне естественно.
А ты решил видеть во мне меркантильную тварь. Это не правда.

>>118625374
Лал, и каким это образом ты думаешь ему вынести мозг по этой книге? Заставить переспать с тобой? Что-то еще?

>>118626097
Заставит обратиться в хача.

>>118623740 (OP)
Посмотрите на неё. Селёдочке обидно, ути-пути, труляля.

>>118625374
>>118625374
ты или тролль или тут пишешь сценарий Санта-Барбары.
В подсознании - у тя все же "он хороший". Ну да ладно (ну люди разные - серо-буро-малиновые)
Вот, на свадьбе зато будет удобно - ему просто нужно будет поднятся к тебе :))

Напокупай тогда книжек "Как свести ЕГО с ума в постели" и "Как завоевывать мужчин"

Читать не обязательно. Просто пригласи его к себе (или вырони из сумочки) - чтоб он увидел.

Есть еще вариант сыграть феминистку.
Но тогда результат непредсказуем

>>118623740 (OP)
>Я тян,и вот моя история.
дальше читать не стал сажиииии

>>118626223
Сажа без сажи? Да ты охуел

>>118626097
Я считаю, что такие книжки - верх долбоебизма.
И я знаю, как он будет себя вести, и какой образ пытаться навязать.
Не повзолю ему это сделать, надавлю по больным точкам.
Чтобы в голову больше не пришло такой хуйней страдать.

Тянки ж доверчивые.

>>118625858
> Я пыталась донести мысль, что у нас разные ситуации. Что мне нужно заботиться о себе самой, и жить своим умом. У меня нет подстилки из родительского капитала.
Уже тот факт, что ты акцентируешь внимание на этом, хотя к самой ситуации это никак не относится, выдаёт твою меркантильную натуру.
> И то, что мне интересно, как работает другая, незнакомая мне среда, вполне естественно.
Стала бы ты испытывать такой же интерес к незнакомой тебе среде, если бы там не вращались деньги? Будь честна хотя бы с собой, мне-то всё равно.

>>118626184
А смысл?
Его надо проучить, ящитаю.

>>118626348
ПРАВИЛЬНО ОХУЕННО ПРАВИЛЬНО ДА ТЫ ТАК КАЙФАНЕШЬ ОТВЕЧАЮ ДА И ЕМУ УРОК МБ ПОМОЖЕТ ЧЕТ ОСОЗНАТЬ

>>118626426
Кого ты там проучить собираешь, селёдка?
ТЫ заслужила это.

>>118623740 (OP)
Советую предоставить пруфы, или пройти нахуй с моих двачей. Пока саги.

>>118625858
Лол. Может ты сама не замечаешь, перечитай.
>жиробас-аутист, который не может в общение
>богатые родители
>сосалась, делала дз
мимодругойанон
Возможно я не прав, просто подметил эту хуйню.

>>118626361
Чувак, мне интересно исследование любой среды.
Я с таким же удовольствием слушаю своих друзей физиков, которые проводят какие-то эксперименты.
И с удовольствием слушаю рассказы своей маникюрщицы о том, как устроена ее работа.
Неужели узнавать что-то новое теперь стало моветоном и меркантильностью?

>>118626607
НЕТ НЕТ НЕТ ОНИ ТУПЫЕ ХУЙНЯ ЭТО ВСЕ ДАВАЙ КОРОЧЕ РЕАЛЬНО РАЗЪЕБИ ЕГО ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИ

>>118623740 (OP)
Сиськи где, зелень?
Вангую, что сейчас начнется виляние жопой. Тогда приступаю к ручному вайпу.

>>118626542
Я всё же имел ввиду несколько другое. Не то, что она общалась с ним ради получения выгоды - вполне возможно, что она делала это совершенно искренне. Меркантильный человек - не тот, кто ничего не делает бескорыстно.

>>118626689
>ручному

>>118626348
И ТРЕД ПРО ЭТО ЗАПИЛИ

Уважаемые школьники, я понимаю, что уроки уже закончились, а домашку делать не хочется.
Но идите рулеточку покрутите, и подрочите в фаптредах. Вы ж не различаете, что нужно сагать, а что нет.
Вы подвержены мейнстриму и какому-то ложному видению как работает эта борда.
Поэтому официально приглашаю всех школьников покинуть этот тред, и нежно целую в лобик.

>>118626830
Я общалась с ним, потому что мы дружили в детстве беззаботной детской дружбой. До всяких половых заморочек.
И помогала чем могла, потому что у меня было такое видение приятельских отношений.

>>118627199
Ясно-понятно, зелень слилась.
Приступаю к вайпу.

ЖЕСТЬ КАК ОНА ЕСТЬ. Анон, снимаю хату у чувака 49 лет, он одинокий, выпивающий, ватный хуй. Работает водителем. Ворует у меня еду, сука. Анон, сегодня этот пидор заявил, что "СЛУЧАЙНО, БЛЯДЬ" заметил у меня запрещенные продукты(рыбные палочки сделаные в Норвегии, которые я нечаянно купил в маленьком магазинчике) и заявит в ФСБ, как на 5 колонну и преступника. Анон, что может быть реально из этого? Я программист, перебрался в ДС, снимаю жилье у него.

Ответы: >>118623366 >>118623824 >>118624081 >>118624134 >>118624151 >>118624212 >>118624323 >>118624428 >>118624626 >>118624864 >>118625263 >>118625683
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:10:46 №118623366

>>118623084 (OP) (OP)
Скажи ему, что ты офицер ФСБ под прикрытием.
Сейчас у вас операция идет и тебе необходимо "втереться в доверие".
А ему за бдительность пообещай грамоту от руководства.
Я бы так и сделал, пусть он себе голову ломал бы

Ответы: >>118623591
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:12:07 №118623501

Возьми и выбрось их нахуй.

Ответы: >>118623591
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:13:08 №118623591

>>118623366
Да он поехавший же. Мне вообще кажется, что он детей может ебать. Бабы нет в49 лет, я вот с тянкой живу.
>>118623501
Сначала съем. Срок годности в норме.

ОП

Ответы: >>118623690 >>118624584
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:13:21 №118623614

Скажи ему, что ты пидор и выебешь его если он стуканет.

Ответы: >>118624205
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:14:03 №118623690

>>118623591
И в чем проблема? Он же ничего тебе не сделает.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:14:30 №118623732

Ничего. Скажи, чтобы докладывал. Если ты купил это в магазе шаговой доступности значит жратва не запрещена, либо при самом маловероятном сценарии нагнут магаз, а ты тут никоим раком не валялся

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:15:33 №118623824

>>118623084 (OP) (OP)
Тред был, мужику-водиле за УКРАИНСКОЕ РАДИО сгущёнка грозит. Во какие у нас сознательные пассажиры! Разминай анус.

Ответы: >>118623948 >>118624152 >>118625074
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:15:36 №118623828

Пирооооооооог пироооооог, пирооооооооооооооооооооог!

Ответы: >>118624044
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:16:56 №118623948

>>118623824
А мне угрожали за то, что я РБК смотрел.

Ответы: >>118624070 >>118624152
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:18:05 №118624044

>>118623828
Поддвачну.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:18:18 №118624070

>>118623948
Тебе угрожали, а анон ссыль кидал, что типок заяву написал или что там пишут. И водиле не до поездок сейчас. Это было месяцок-другой еазад.

Ответы: >>118624339
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:18:24 №118624081

>>118623084 (OP)
Поинтересуйся у него, платит ли он налоги от сдачи жилья?

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:18:49 №118624134

>>118623084 (OP)
Квартиру снимают "под хозяина". Твой хозяин - гнида. Сейчас цены на жилье - рвут и пробивают дно. Мне одно непонятно - зачем с ним конфликтовать-выяснять отношения, если можно просто в трубку сказать "Аллё, я хочу снять квартиру"
А этому хую хозяину - после выноса всех своих вещей, если и не уебать по рылу - то харкнуть в рожу...
И всех делов...

Ответы: >>118624283
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:18:59 №118624151

>>118623084 (OP)
Что за долбоебизм? Что за ЗАПРЕЩЕННЫЕ нахуй продукты? Вы совсем ебанулись, дегенераты, блядь? Покажи мне закон, запрещающий их потребление. Дауны, блядь, ёбаные.

Ответы: >>118624279
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:19:00 №118624152

>>118623948
Так они подментованые кремлем так-то.
>>118623824
Висит украинский флаг в полстены в моей комнате, брал его на день памяти Бориса Ефимыча, украинская фамлия, сам на 1\4 украинец.

ОП

Ответы: >>118624811
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:19:38 №118624205

Этот >>118623614 годно посоветовал, но у меня есть лучше совет:
Выеби его и скажи, что всем расскажешь.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:19:42 №118624212

>>118623084 (OP)
Толсто.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:20:20 №118624279

>>118624151
вот это и хотел написать, но даже не стал...
Если это не развод просто...
может ОП - толстый (хуй) тролль

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:20:23 №118624283

>>118624134
Подумываем с девочкой соей об этом.

ОП

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:20:50 №118624323

>>118623084 (OP)
> нечаянно купил
Не пизди. Нечаянно купил он, блядь.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:21:00 №118624339

>>118624070
Да несрать мне на этого дхыща.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:22:07 №118624428

>>118623084 (OP)
Ничего. Сними нормльную квартиру
/thread

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:23:53 №118624584

>>118623591
> Бабы нет в49 лет, я вот с тянкой живу

ШОК

Питурд гонит батю пробздеться.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:24:25 №118624626

>>118623084 (OP)
Тут же как с наркотой,ебут барыг,а не покупателей. Не так?

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:26:33 №118624811
14569323933970.jpg (19Кб, 550x413)
19

>>118624152
Ты просто гнидахохол

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:27:12 №118624864

>>118623084 (OP)
Святая толстота, твой хозяин знаит наизусть список запрещенных продуктов?

Ответы: >>118625267
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:29:18 №118625051

Как же проигрываю с треда. Это анекдот про очередь пидорах за кочергой в жопе В РЕАЛЬНОЙ ЖИЗНИ

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:29:35 №118625074

>>118623824
Кинь ссыль на новость, эт пиздец. Друзьям покажу

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:31:42 №118625263
14569327025140.jpg (2575Кб, 3840x2160)
2575

>>118623084 (OP)
Слушай сюда, ОП. После заката так пиздато. Кто катали вату, покинули хаты, поджигают бланты. Кто-то в каче светит пачей, кто-то табачит, кто-то повторяет мой куплет головами в кач. Типы баллонами тэгают стены. Не догонит кот толстенный, свалится смена без пленных. Здесь бомжи сшибают мелочь сутками на водку, пацаны замутят за ночь сумму своему на откуп. Они хотят видеть нас рабами системы, слова летят, бит и бас, и повсюду темень. Мир без границ, взгляд, устремленный вниз, утомительная жизнь, в другую не выдали визу. Здесь не любят когда зад облизан, коп не отчизной призван, такому лоху сизому, лампы тут на столбах не зря висят. Нормально движем уже до шестидесятых. Посмотри в окно, не смотри в телевизор, там по-другому всё, по ночам пиздаче жизнь. Это не кино, прекрати свои капризы, ты сегодня вверх, а завтра по маршруту вниз.

Ответы: >>118626027
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:31:47 №118625267

>>118624864
>>118624864
>>118624864
Прочитал производителя, там по-русски ни слова на коробе.

ОП

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:36:02 №118625683

>>118623084 (OP)
Покупаешь санкционные продукты, пидор?
Я бы тебя ночью удушил и голову отрезал на месте деда.

Ответы: >>118625908
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:38:15 №118625908

>>118625683
Че хочу, то и покупаю, ватная мразь.

ОП

Ответы: >>118626073
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:39:40 №118626027

>>118625263
Собственно, /thread
ОП тупой даун.

Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:40:17 №118626073

>>118625908
> программист
> снимает хату у поехавшего деда
Ты видимо даун даже среди программистов, либеральная шваль.

Ответы: >>118626199
Аноним 02/03/16 Срд 18:41:39 №118626199

>>118626073
Хуй соси, мразина ватная.

ОП

>>118627343
Охлади траханье.
Тянки всегда были и будут. Не стоит воспламеняться по каждой.

Майкл Браун (англ. Michael E. Brown; 5 июня 1965) — профессор планетной астрономии в Калифорнийском технологическом институте (Калтехе) с 2003 года. Ранее в Калифорнийском технологическом институте был адъюнкт-профессором (англ. associate professor) в 2002—2003 годах и доцентом (англ. assistant professor) в 1997—2002 годах[1].

В 2012 году за открытие и описание объектов пояса Койпера был награждён престижной премией Кавли[2].

Майкла Брауна называют «человеком, убившим Плутон», так как именно по его инициативе Плутон был лишён статуса планеты[3]. В 2010 году Браун написал книгу «Как я убил Плутон и почему это было неизбежно».

В 2016 году Майкл Браун и его коллеги из Калифорнийского технологического института предположили существование девятой полноценной планеты в Солнечной системе[4]. Браун оценил вероятность её реального существования в 90 %.

Содержание

1 См. также
2 Примечания
3 Литература
4 Ссылки

См. также

Девятая планета

Примечания

↑ Brown, Michael Curriculum vitae. Проверено 25 августа 2006. Архивировано из первоисточника 18 марта 2012.
↑ Ученые из США и Германии стали лауреатами премии Кавли в 2012 году, РИА Новости (1 июня 2012). Проверено 2 июня 2012.
↑ Astronomer Who ‘Killed’ Pluto to Present Annual Science Lecture
↑ Konstantin Batygin, Michael E. Brown Evidence for a Distant Giant Planet in the Solar System (англ.) // The Astronomical Journal. — 2016. — Vol. 151, fasc. 2. — P. 22. — ISSN 1538-3881. — DOI:10.3847/0004-6256/151/2/22.

Литература

Браун Майкл. Как я убил Плутон и почему это было неизбежно = How I Killed Pluto and Why it Had it Coming / переводчик: Дарья Григорьева. — Карьера Пресс, 2012. — 368 с. — 2500 экз. — ISBN 978-5-904946-33-3.

Ссылки

Личная страница Майкла Брауна (англ.)
How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming. Видеолекция

Просмотр этого шаблона
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BIBSYS: x11031797 · GND: 1023506793 · ISNI: 0000 0000 3625 4927 · LCCN: n2006094700 · NDL: 001122947 · NTA: 332371549 · VIAF: 56047546
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Родившиеся 5 июняРодившиеся в 1965 годуПерсоналии по алфавитуРодившиеся в Хантсвилле (Алабама)Учёные по алфавитуАстрономы по алфавитуАстрономы XX векаАстрономы XXI векаАстрономы СШАПервооткрыватели ТНОЛауреаты премии КавлиПервооткрыватели карликовых планет

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Калифорнийский технологический институт
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Калифорнийский технологический институт
CaltechLogo.png
По-английски

California Institute of Technology
Девиз

англ. The truth shall make you free
рус. Истина сделает вас свободными
Основан в

1891
Тип

частный
Целевой фонд

$ 2,09 млрд.[1]
Президент

Жан-Лу Шэмьё
Место расположения

Пасадина, Калифорния, США
34°08′18″ с. ш. 118°07′31″ з. д. (G) (O) (Я)Координаты: 34°08′18″ с. ш. 118°07′31″ з. д. (G) (O) (Я)
Показать географическую карту
Кампус

городской (50 га)
Студентов

2209[2]
Бакалавров

983[2]
Магистров и докторов

1226[2]
Преподавателей

294[3]
Цвета

Оранжевый и белый
Талисман

Бобр
Официальный сайт

www.caltech.edu

Caltech wordmark.png
Commons-logo.svg Категория на Викискладе

Калифорнийский технологический институт (англ. California Institute of Technology; часто сокращается до Caltech) — частный исследовательский университет, расположенный в городе Пасадина в штате Калифорния, один из ведущих университетов в США, и один из двух самых важных, наряду с Массачусетским технологическим институтом, специализирующихся в точных науках и инженерии. Калтеху также принадлежит лаборатория реактивного движения, которая запускает большую часть автоматических космических аппаратов НАСА.

Калтех остаётся относительно маленьким университетом, в котором учится около 900 студентов и 1200 аспирантов. С Калтехом так или иначе связан 31 лауреат Нобелевской премии. Из них 17 выпускников и 18 профессоров. 65 человек из выпускников и преподавателей получили национальную научную медаль США или национальную медаль в области технологий и инноваций, 112 человек были избраны в члены национальных академий наук.

Содержание

1 История
2 Обучение
2.1 Факультеты
2.2 Программа для студентов
3 Культура
3.1 Система домов-общежитий
3.2 Традиции
3.3 Розыгрыши
3.4 Кодекс чести
4 Примечания
5 Ссылки

История

В 1891 году бизнесмен и политик Эймос Труп основал техническое училище в Пасадине под названием Университет имени Трупа (англ. Throop University)[4]. Неоднократно переименованное, училище наконец превратилось в Калифорнийский технологический институт в 1920 году.

Превращение училища в первоклассный университет и научный центр начал астроном Джордж Хейл, приехавший в Пасадину в 1907 году в качестве первого директора обсерватории на горе Вильсон. Научными исследованиями в США ещё мало кто занимался, и Хейл увидел шанс сделать Пасадену центром научной деятельности. Он сумел привлечь достаточно денег и земли благотворителей, чтобы построить современные и хорошо оборудованные лаборатории. Затем он убедил двух виднейших американских учёных того времени, химика Артура Нойза (англ.) и физика Роберта Милликена, стать профессорами Калтеха.

Под руководством Хейла, Нойза и Милликена, на волне экономического бума в южной Калифорнии, Калтех стал гораздо известнее в течение 1920-х годов. В 1923 году Милликен получил Нобелевскую премию по физике. В 1925 году университет добавил геологический факультет и отделение гуманитарных и общественных наук, которое возглавил Вильям Беннет Манро, в то время глава отделения истории, политики и экономики в Гарвардском университете. В 1926 году был создан факультет аэронавтики, в котором постепенно оказался Теодор фон Карман, организовавший потом лабораторию реактивного движения. В 1928 году университет основал биологический факультет под эгидой Томаса Моргана, первооткрывателя хромосомы, а также начал строить Паломарскую обсерваторию.

Милликен служил «председателем исполнительного совета» (попросту говоря ректором) университета с 1921 по 1945 год. Он так повлиял на развитие Калтеха, что тот часто называют «университетом Милликена» (англ. Millikan's school). С 1950-х до 1970-х годов, в Калтехе работали два возможно самых великих физика элементарных частиц того времени, Ричард Фейнман и Мюррей Гелл-Манн. Оба получили Нобелевскую премию за их роль в создании Стандартной Модели физики элементарных частиц.

Образ университета в фильме «Настоящий гений» и в телесериале «Числа» основан на Калтехе.
Обучение

Учиться в Калтехе считается труднее, чем почти во всех других американских университетах. Студенты должны усвоить огромное количество информации за короткое время, и этот процесс иногда сравнивается с питьем воды из гидранта. Жизнь в Калтехе иногда описывают афоризмом: «Учёба, сон, общественная жизнь: выбери два из трёх». Хотя самый знаменитый факультет Калтеха — физический, последние несколько лет ректор Дэвид Балтимор старается повысить репутацию университета в биологии. Также выдаются такие междисциплинарные программы, как «Вычисление и нейронные системы» (англ. Computation and Neural Systems, CNS).
Факультеты

Калтех делится на шесть отделений (англ. divisions), каждое из которых предоставляет студентам и аспирантам несколько специализаций.
Библиотека Милликена, самое высокое здание в кампусе

Отделение биологии
Отделение химии и химической технологии
Химия
Химическая технология
Отделение технологии и прикладной науки
Аэронавтика (GALCIT)
Прикладная и вычислительная математика
Прикладная механика
Гражданское строительство
Информатика
Электротехника
Материаловедение
Машиностроение
Отделение геологии и планетологии
Геология
Геофизика
Отделение гуманитарных и общественных наук
Гуманитарные науки
История
Английский язык
История и философия науки
Общественные науки
Экономика
Экономика бизнеса и менеджмент
Общественные науки
Отделение физики, математики, и астрономии
Физика
Математика
Астрономия
Прикладная физика
Биохимия

Карман, Теодор фон
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с фамилией Карман.
Теодор фон Карман
нем. Theodore von Kármán
Theodore von Karman - GPN-2000-001500.jpg
Дата рождения:

11 мая 1881[1][2][3][4]
Место рождения:

Будапешт, Венгрия[2][3]
Дата смерти:

6 мая 1963 (81 год) или 7 мая 1963[1][2][3][4] (81 год)
Место смерти:

Ахен[2][3]
Страна:

Flag of Austria-Hungary (1869-1918).svg Австро-Венгрия
Flag of Germany.svg Германия
Flag of the United States.svg США[3]
Научная сфера:

механик
Место работы:

Гёттингенский университет
РВТУ Ахена
Калифорнийский технологический институт
Учёная степень:

доктор наук
Альма-матер:

Будапештский университет технологии и экономики
Университет Гёттингена
Научный руководитель:

Людвиг Прандтль
Известные ученики:

Ху Нин
Цянь Сюэсэнь
Известен как:

сверхзвуковые и гиперзвуковые течения
Награды и премии:

Гиббсовская лекция (1939)
Медаль ASME (1941)
Медаль Джона Фрица (1948)
Медаль Франклина (1948)
Медаль Тимошенко (1958)
Национальная научная медаль США (1962)
Медаль Вильгельма Экснера (1962)
Commons-logo.svg Теодор фон Карман на Викискладе

Теодор фон Ка́рман (нем. Theodore von Kármán, венг. Kármán Tódor; 11 мая 1881 года, Будапешт — 6 мая 1963 года, Ахен) — американский инженер и физик венгерского происхождения, специалист в области воздухоплавания.

Содержание

1 Биография
2 Научные интересы
3 Последние годы
4 Семья
5 Награды
6 Память
7 Ссылки

Биография

Карман родился и вырос в еврейской семье в Венгрии, одним из его предков был раввин Иегуда Ли́ва бен Бецалель.

Окончил в 1902 году Королевский технический университет в Будапеште. В 1902 году переехал в Германию, где в Гёттингенском университете в 1908 году защитил докторскую диссертацию под руководством Людвига Прандтля. Работал в Университете последующие четыре года. В 1912—1930 гг. возглавлял Институт воздухоплавания при Аахенском университете, работая, в частности, над ранними моделями вертолёта. Проходил службу в австро-венгерской армии 1915—1918 годах.

В 1930 году принял приглашение Калифорнийского технологического института и стал директором его лаборатории воздухоплавания. В 1936 году он стоял у истоков компании Аэроджет (Aerojet), производившей ракетные двигатели. Начиная с середины 1940-х гг., занимался преимущественно проблемами астронавтики, принял участие в создании ряда исследовательских сообществ.

По его инициативе в 1960 году основана Международная академия астронавтики — организация, объединяющая ведущих ученых и инженеров работающих в области космических исследований и Фон Кармановский институт гидродинамики в Синт-Генезиус-Роде (Бельгия) в 1956 году.
Научные интересы

В 1912 году Карман провёл теоретический анализ несжимаемой жидкости, обтекающей протяжённую ось, перпендикулярную направлению движения сплошной среды. Получающиеся при этом цепочки вихрей названы дорожкой Кармана в его честь.

Основные труды Кармана связаны с аэродинамическими проблемами авиации и космонавтики. Им была рассчитана, а затем его именем названа линия Кармана — принятая Международной авиационной федерацией условная граница между земной атмосферой и космическим пространством.

Исследование Кармана о двигателях самолетов будущего, сделанное в 1944 году, считается классическим в области технологического прогнозирования. Особенность прогнозов фон Кармана состояла в том, что он не пытался предсказывать характер отдельных устройств, но изучал основные перспективные и ограничительные факторы, функциональные возможности и ключевые параметры систем, сосредоточивал внимание на оценке альтернативных комбинаций предполагаемых достижении науки и техники и старался вмещать свои прогнозы в чёткие 15—20-летние временные рамки.

Карман, как и его учитель, Людвиг Прандтль работал во многих областях механики жидкости, и считается одним из отцов аэродинамики.
Последние годы

В июне 1944 года перенес операцию в связи с раком кишечника в одной из клиник Нью-Йорка. Умер во время поездки в Ахен (Германия) в 1963 году. Похоронен в Пасадене, Калифорния.
Семья

Никогда не был женат.
Награды

Удостоен Национальной медали науки (1963), медаль вручена во время торжественной церемонии в Белом доме президентом США Джоном Ф. Кеннеди.
Память

В его честь Американское общество инженеров-строителей (англ.)русск. учредило медаль Кармана (англ.)русск. (с 1960 года) и премию Теодора фон Кармана, которыми ежегодно награждаются выдающиеся инженеры и техники.

В честь Кармана названы лунный кратер и кратер на Марсе.
Ссылки

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Математическая генеалогия
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Эйнштейн Это заготовка статьи об учёном-физике. Вы можете помочь проекту, дополнив её.

Record #118560255 // Gemeinsame Normdatei — 2012—2016.
Архив по истории математики Мактьютор
Dryden H. L. Theodore von Kármán 1881-1963: A Biographical Memoir by Hugh L. Dryden — National Academy of Sciences, 1965.

Bibliothèque nationale de France: open data platform — 2011.

Категории:

Родившиеся 11 маяРодившиеся в 1881 годуРодившиеся в БудапештеУмершие 6 маяУмершие в 1963 годуУмершие 7 маяУмершие в АхенеПерсоналии по алфавитуУчёные по алфавитуМеханики по алфавитуМеханики ГерманииМеханики СШАМеханики XX векаДоктора наукИнженеры СШАФизики СШАИнженеры ВенгрииИзобретатели ВенгрииАэродинамикиНаграждённые медалью ASMEНаграждённые Национальной медалью науки США

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Текст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования.
Wikipedia® — зарегистрированный товарный знак некоммерческой организации Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is a tax-exempt professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Based in Reston, Virginia, it is the oldest national engineering society in the United States, with its constitution based on the older Boston Society of Civil Engineers (1848)[1]

Contents

1 History
1.1 The 21st century
2 Mission
3 Publications
3.1 Journals
3.2 Books
3.3 Magazines
4 Conferences and education
4.1 Institutes
5 Divisions
6 Academies
7 Controversies in New Orleans Levee Investigations
7.1 Press Release Contained Wrong/Conflicting Information
7.2 Dr. Raymond Seed Submits Ethics Complaint
7.3 ASCE Convenes Two Review Panels to Examine Allegations of Ethics Breaches
7.4 Grassroots Group Release Spoof of Relationship Between ASCE and USACE
7.5 Accusations that ASCE used Grant Money from USACE for Disinformation
8 Government relations
9 Activities outside the United States
10 Awards and designations
10.1 World wonders
10.2 Outstanding Projects and Leaders (OPAL) awards
10.3 Wesley W. Horner Award
11 See also
12 References
13 External links

History

ASCE was founded in New York City on November 5, 1852, when twelve engineers—Julius W. Adams, J. W. Ayres, Alfred W. Craven, Thomas A. Emmet, Edward Gardiner, Robert B. Gorsuch, George S. Greene, James Laurie, W. H. Morell, S. S. Post, W. H. Talcott, and W. H. Sidell—met at the offices of the Croton Aqueduct and formed the American Society of Civil Engineers and Architects. It was the first national engineering society created in the United States.[2] In 1869 the "Architects" was dropped from the name, as the architects formed their own society, the American Institute of Architects, in 1857.[3]

As part of understanding the history of civil engineering and promoting the civil engineering profession, a survey of the historic accomplishments of civil engineers is continually conducted by ASCE members. Such reviews of civil engineering accomplishments have produced various lists of the notable categories and projects of the profession.
The 21st century

During the 1925 Mid-South convention of the ASCE, held in Memphis, Tennessee, engineers and their families were invited on a sightseeing trip aboard two ships. These ships, Choctaw and M.E. Norman, were operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The M.E. Norman, a steamship, capsized and sank in the Mississippi River, resulting in the deaths of 23 passengers and crew, including former ASCE president Paul Howes Norcross.

The prospect of a new millennium led the ASCE to reflect upon the civil engineering achievements of the 20th century with two events. First, the Millennium Challenge in 1999 identified the top-ten "civil engineering achievements that had the greatest positive impact on life in the 20th century", which were to be "broad categories", rather than "individual achievements", which were reserved for the second event. Monuments of the Millennium selected and recognized feats of civil engineering that demonstrated a "combination of technical engineering achievement, courage and inspiration, and a dramatic influence on the development of [their] communities".[4]

The achievements and the monuments that best exemplify them include:

Airport design and development - the Kansai International Airport in Osaka, Japan
Dams - the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River in the United States
Interstate Highway System - "the system overall"[4]
Long-span bridges - the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California
Rail transportation - as exemplified by the Eurotunnel rail system connecting the UK and France
Sanitary landfills and solid waste disposal - "sanitary waste disposal advances overall"[4]
Skyscrapers - the Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan, New York City
Wastewater treatment - the Chicago wastewater system
Water supply and distribution - the California State Water Project
Water transportation - the Panama Canal

Mission

ASCE is the permanent organization representing the civil engineering profession in the United States. Its mission is to "provide essential value to our members and partners, advance civil engineering, and serve the public good". ASCE strives to "facilitate the advancement of technology", "encourage and provide the tools for lifelong learning", promote professionalism, influence public policy, "develop and support civil engineer leaders", and "advocate infrastructure and environmental stewardship".[5]
Publications

ASCE is the world's largest publisher of civil engineering information[citation needed] — producing more than 55,000 pages of technical content each year. The ASCE Publications Division produces 33 professional journals (available both in print and online editions), conference proceedings, standards, manuals of practice, committee reports, and monographs. A 200,000-entry civil engineering database is available at their website, along with many other resources for practicing civil engineers, including a complete publications catalog and the ASCE Library, which provides access to more than 600,000 pages of journal articles and proceedings. ASCE also publishes Civil Engineering, the official magazine of the Society; ASCE News; and Geo-Strata.
Journals
Main category: American Society of Civil Engineers academic journals

ASCE's 33 peer-reviewed highly cited journals, including the Journal of Structural Engineering, facilitate the exchange of technical and professional knowledge among civil engineers. Information published in the journals forms an archival record of the technical advances of today's civil engineering profession. The complete volumes from 1990-2006 are available online.

ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems, Part A: Civil Engineering
International Journal of Geomechanics
Journal of Aerospace Engineering
Journal of Architectural Engineering
Journal of Bridge Engineering
Journal of Cold Regions Engineering
Journal of Composites for Construction
Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Journal of Energy Engineering
Journal of Engineering Mechanics
Journal of Environmental Engineering
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development (English Edition)
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Journal of Hydrologic Engineering
Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Journal of Legal Affairs and Dispute Resolution in Engineering and Construction
Journal of Management in Engineering
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Journal of Nanomechanics and Micromechanics
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities
Journal of Pipeline Systems Engineering and Practic]
Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice
Journal of Structural Engineering
Journal of Surveying Engineering
Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environment
Journal of Transportation Engineering
Journal of Urban Planning and Development
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering
Leadership and Management in Engineering
Natural Hazards Review
Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction

Books

Academic conference
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Symposium (academic)" redirects here. For other uses of symposium, see Symposium (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009)
Conference on medicament-assisted rehabilitation in Oslo, Norway

An academic conference or symposium is a conference for researchers (not necessarily academics) to present and discuss their work. Together with academic or scientific journals, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers.

Contents

1 Overview
1.1 Presentations
1.2 Size
1.3 Types
1.4 Infrastructure
2 Organizing an academic conference
3 Fraudulent conferences
4 References
5 See also
6 External links
6.1 Professional conference organisers – trade bodies

Overview

Conferences are usually composed of various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings.

Usually a conference will include keynote speakers (often, scholars of some standing, but sometimes individuals from outside academia). The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel.

In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues and workshops.
Presentations

Prospective presenters are usually asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which will be reviewed before the presentation is accepted for the meeting. Some disciplines require presenters to submit a paper of about 6–15 pages, which is peer reviewed by members of the program committee or referees chosen by them.

In some disciplines, such as English and other languages, it is common for presenters to read from a prepared script. In other disciplines such as the sciences, presenters usually base their talk around a visual presentation that displays key figures and research results.
Size

A large meeting will usually be called a conference, while a smaller is termed a workshop. They might be single track or multiple track, where the former has only one session at a time, while a multiple track meeting has several parallel sessions with speakers in separate rooms speaking at the same time.

The larger the conference, the more likely it is that academic publishing houses may set up displays. Large conferences also may have a career and job search and interview activities.

At some conferences, social or entertainment activities such as tours and receptions can be part of the program. Business meetings for learned societies or interest groups can also be part of the conference activities.
Types

Academic conferences typically fall into three categories:

the themed conference, small conferences organized around a particular topic;
the general conference, a conference with a wider focus, with sessions on a wide variety of topics. These conferences are often organized by regional, national, or international learned societies, and held annually or on some other regular basis.
the professional conference, large conferences not limited to academics but with academically related issues.

Infrastructure

Increasing numbers of amplified conferences are being provided which exploit the potential of WiFi networks and mobile devices in order to enable remote participants to contribute to discussions and listen to ideas.

Advanced technology for meeting with any yet unknown person in a conference is performed by active RFID that may indicate wilfully identified and relatively located upon approach via electronic tags.
Organizing an academic conference

Conferences are usually organized either by a scientific society or by a group of researchers with a common interest. Larger meetings may be handled on behalf of the scientific society by a Professional Conference Organiser or PCO.[1]

The meeting is announced by way of a Call For Papers (CFP) or a Call For Abstracts, which is sent to prospective presenters and explains how to submit their abstracts or papers. It describes the broad theme and lists the meeting's topics and formalities such as what kind of abstract (summary) or paper has to be submitted, to whom, and by what deadline. A CFP is usually distributed using a mailing list or on specialized online services. Contributions are usually submitted using an online abstract or paper management service.
Fraudulent conferences

There have been accusations for fake, scam, or fraudulent conferences;[2][3] see also BIT Life Sciences and SCIgen § In conferences.
References

Conferences and Conventions: a global industry by Tony Rogers. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
Cybercrime: The Psychology of Online Offenders

nih.gov

See also

Abstract management
Academia
Category:Academic terminology
Academic writing
Bullying in academia
Colloquium
Congress
Convention (meeting)
Education
French mathematical seminars
Plenary session
Poster session
Proceedings
Professional conference
Research
Scholarly article
Scholarly method
Scientific community
Scientific method
Scientific journal
Seminar

External links
Professional conference organisers – trade bodies

Association of British Professional Conference Organisers
International Association of Professional Congress Organisers
International Congress & Convention Association
Professional Convention Management Association

Жаль.

Это место уже ничего не спасет.

An amplified conference is a conference or similar event in which the talks and discussions at the conference are 'amplified' through use of networked technologies in order to extend the reach of the conference deliberations. The term was originally coined by Lorcan Dempsey in a blog post.[1] The term is now widely used within the academic and research community with Wankel [2] proposing the following definition:

The extension of a physical event (or a series of events) through the use of social media tools for expanding access to (aspects of) the event beyond physical and temporal bounds. Such amplification takes place in the context of intent to make the most of the intellectual content, discussion, networking, and discovery initiated by the event through the process of sharing with co-attendees, colleagues, friends and wider informed publics.

A paper by [3] illustrates how amplified conferences are becoming mainstream in a discussion on "how social media have been employed as part of the project, particularly around event amplification".

As described by Guy in the Ariadne ejournal [4] the term is not a prescriptive one, but rather describes a pattern of behaviors which initially took place at IT and Web-oriented conferences once WiFi networks started to become available at conference venues and delegates started to bring with them networked devices such as laptops and, more recently, PDAs and mobile phones.
Different Approaches to 'Amplification' of Conferences

There are a number of ways in which conferences can be amplified through use of networked technologies:

Amplification of the audiences' voice: Prior to the availability of real time chat technologies at events (whether use of IRC, Twitter, instant messaging clients, etc.) it was only feasible to discuss talks with immediate neighbours, and even then this may be considered rude.

Amplification of the speaker's talk: The availability of video and audio-conferencing technologies make it possible for a speaker to be heard by an audience which isn't physically present at the conference. Although use of video technologies has been available to support conferences for some time, this has normally been expensive and require use of dedicated video-conferencing technologies. However the availability of lightweight desktop tools make it much easier to deploy such technologies, without even, requiring the involvement of conference organisers.

Amplification across time: Video and audio technologies can also be used to allow a speaker's talk to be made available after the event, with use of podcasting or videocasting technologies allowing the talks to be easily syndicated to mobile devices as well as accessed on desktop computers.

Amplification of the speaker's slides: The popularity of global repository services for slides, such as SlideShare, enable the slides used by a speaker to be more easily found, embedded on other Web sites and commented upon, in ways that were not possible when the slides, if made available at all, were only available on a conference Web site.

Amplification of feedback to the speaker: Micro-blogging technologies, such as Twitter, are being used not only as a discussion channel for conference participants but also as a way of providing real-time feedback to a speaker during a talk. We are also now seeing dedicated microblogging technologies, such as Coveritlive and Scribblelive, being developed which aim to provide more sophisticated 'back channels' for use at conferences.

Amplification of a conference's collective memory: The popularity of digital cameras and the photographic capabilities of many mobile phones is leading to many photographs being taken at conferences. With such photographs often being uploaded to popular photographic sharing services, such as Flickr, and such collections being made more easy to discover through agreed use of tags, we are seeing amplification of the memories of an event though the sharing of such resources. The ability of such photographic resources to be 'mashed up' with, say, accompanying music, can similarly help to enrich such collective experiences.

Amplification of the learning: The ability to be able to follow links to resources and discuss the points made by a speaker during a talk can enrich the learning which takes place at an event, as described by Shabajee's article on "'Hot' or Not? Welcome to real-time peer review" published in the Times Higher Educational Supplement in May 2003.[5]

Long term amplification of conference outputs: The availability in a digital format of conference resources, including 'official' resources such as slides, video and audio recordings, etc. which have been made by the conference organisers with the approval of speakers, together with more nebulous resources such as archives of conference back channels, and photographs and unofficial recordings taken at the event may help to provide a more authentic record of an event, which could potentially provide a valuable historical record.

The amplification of conferences can be viewed as an example of how new technologies are altering standard practice. By using these techniques a different type of interaction is created at the conference itself, but also the boundaries around the conference can be seen as permeable, with remote participants engaging in discussion. An amplified conference also provides a considerably altered archive compared with a 'traditional' one. For the latter, the printed proceedings will be the main record, but for an amplified event this record is distributed across many media and takes in a wider range of content types, including the papers, videos of the presentations (for example on YouTube), the slides (e.g. on Slideshare), photos of the event (Flickr), interaction between participants (Twitter), reflections and comments (blogs), etc. The amplified conference represents an example of changing practice in digital scholarship.
References

Dempsey, Lorcan (July 25, 2007). "The amplified conference". Retrieved 2008-08-30.
Wankel, Charles. Higher Education Administration with Social Media. ISBN 0857246518.
Haider, Jutta; Huvila, Isto; Cox, Andrew; Francke, Helena and Hall, Hazel. "Transformation or continuity? The impact of social media on information: implications for theory and practice" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-11-20.
Guy, Marieke (January 30, 2011). "10 Cheap and Easy Ways to Amplify Your Event". Retrieved 2012-04-04.

Shabajee, Paul (August 1, 2003). "'Hot' or Not? Welcome to real-time peer review". Retrieved 2008-08-30.

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>>118627618
Ты про тред?

>>118627326
Что ты пребалась к парню. Отъебись от него чертовка и тредом своим подотрись.

>>118627618
2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
United Nations Climate Change Conference COP7 Logo.jpg
Date 29 October 2001–
10 November 2001
Location Marrakech, Morocco
Also known as COP7
Participants UNFCCC member countries
Website Report of the conference of the parties

The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10, 2001 in Marrakech, Morocco. The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords. The United States delegation maintained its observer role, declining to participate actively in the negotiations. Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force (55 countries needed to ratify it, including those accounting for 55% of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990). The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (August–September 2002) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was to be held in Johannesburg, South Africa.

The main decisions at COP 7 included:

Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation;
A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol, once it came into force, the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding;
Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms;
A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries.

[show]

v t e

United Nations climate change conferences
Categories:

21st-century diplomatic conferencesDiplomatic conferences in MoroccoEnvironmental conferencesUnited Nations climate change conferencesUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change2001 in international relations2001 in the environmentHistory of Marrakesh

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Marrakesh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Marrakech)
For other uses, see Marrakesh (disambiguation).
Marrakesh
Meṛṛakec / ⵎⴻⵕⵕⴰⴽⴻⵛ / مراكش
Marrakech
Prefecture-level city
Clockwise, from top: Djamâa el Fna, Saadian wall, Musicians on Djamâa el Fna, Local handicraft, Bab Agnaou, Saadian tombs, Ben Youssef Medersa.
Clockwise, from top: Djamâa el Fna, Saadian wall, Musicians on Djamâa el Fna, Local handicraft, Bab Agnaou, Saadian tombs, Ben Youssef Medersa.
Map of Marrakesh
Map of Marrakesh
Marrakesh is located in Morocco
Marrakesh
Marrakesh
Location in Morocco
Coordinates: 31°37′48″N 8°0′32″WCoordinates: 31°37′48″N 8°0′32″W
Country Morocco
Region Marrakech-Safi
Prefecture Marrakesh
Established 1062
Founded by Abu Bakr ibn Umar
Government
• Mayor Mohamed Larbi Belcaid[2]
Elevation 466 m (1,529 ft)
Population (2014)
• Prefecture-level city 928,850[1]
• Rank 4th
• Metro 1,063,415
Time zone WET (UTC+0)
• Summer (DST) WEST (UTC+1)

Marrakesh (also known by the French spelling Marrakech[3] (/məˈrækɛʃ/ or /ˌmærəˈkɛʃ/;[4] Berber: Meṛṛakec, ⵎⴻⵕⵕⴰⴽⴻⵛ; Arabic: مراكش‎, Murrākuš) is a major city of Morocco. It is the fourth largest city in the country, after Casablanca, Fes and Tangier. It is the capital city of the mid-southwestern region of Marrakesh-Asfi. Located to the north of the foothills of the snow-capped Atlas Mountains, Marrakesh is located 580 km (360 mi) southwest of Tangier, 327 km (203 mi) southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat, 239 km (149 mi) south of Casablanca, and 246 km (153 mi) northeast of Agadir.

Marrakesh is possibly the most important of Morocco's four former imperial cities (cities that were built by Moroccan Berber empires). The region has been inhabited by Berber farmers since Neolithic times, but the actual city was founded in 1062 by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, chieftain and cousin of Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin. In the 12th century, the Almoravids built many madrasas (Koranic schools) and mosques in Marrakesh that bear Andalusian influences. The red walls of the city, built by Ali ibn Yusuf in 1122–1123, and various buildings constructed in red sandstone during this period, have given the city the nickname of the "Red City" or "Ochre City". Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural, religious, and trading centre for the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa; Jemaa el-Fnaa is the busiest square in Africa.

After a period of decline, the city was surpassed by Fes, but in the early 16th century, Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom. The city regained its preeminence under wealthy Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al-Qaim and Ahmad al-Mansur, who embellished the city with sumptuous palaces such as the El Badi Palace (1578) and restored many ruined monuments. Beginning in the 17th century, the city became popular among Sufi pilgrims for Morocco's seven patron saints, who are entombed here. In 1912 the French Protectorate in Morocco was established and T'hami El Glaoui became Pasha of Marrakesh and held this position nearly throughout the duration of the protectorate until the role was dissolved upon independence of Morocco and the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1956. In 2009, Marrakesh mayor Fatima Zahra Mansouri became the second woman to be elected mayor in Morocco.

Like many Moroccan cities, Marrakesh comprises an old fortified city packed with vendors and their stalls (the medina), bordered by modern neighborhoods, the most prominent of which is Gueliz. Today it is one of the busiest cities in Africa and serves as a major economic centre and tourist destination. Tourism is strongly advocated by the reigning Moroccan monarch, Mohammed VI, with the goal of doubling the number of tourists visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020. Despite the economic recession, real estate and hotel development in Marrakesh has grown dramatically in the 21st century. Marrakesh is particularly popular with the French, and numerous French celebrities own property in the city. Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market (souk) in Morocco, with some 18 souks selling wares ranging from traditional Berber carpets to modern consumer electronics. Crafts employ a significant percentage of the population, who primarily sell their products to tourists.

Marrakesh is served by Ménara International Airport and the Marrakesh railway station, which connects the city to Casablanca and northern Morocco. Marrakesh has several universities and schools, including Cadi Ayyad University. A number of Moroccan football clubs are located here, including Najm de Marrakech, KAC Marrakech, Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech. The Marrakesh Street Circuit hosts the World Touring Car Championship, Auto GP and FIA Formula Two Championship races.

Contents

1 Etymology
2 History
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
4 Demographics
5 Economy
6 Politics and administration
7 Landmarks
7.1 Jemaa el-Fnaa
7.2 Souks
7.3 City walls and gates
7.4 Gardens
7.5 Palaces and Riads
7.5.1 El Badi Palace
7.5.2 Royal Palace
7.5.3 Bahia Palace
7.6 Mosques
7.6.1 Koutoubia Mosque
7.6.2 Ben Youssef Mosque
7.6.3 Mouassine Mosque
7.7 Tombs
7.7.1 Saadian Tombs
7.7.2 Tombs of the Seven Saints
7.8 Mellah
7.9 Hotels
8 Culture
8.1 Museums
8.1.1 Marrakech Museum
8.1.2 Dar Si Said Museum
8.1.3 Museum of Islamic Art
8.2 Music, theatre and dance
8.3 Crafts
8.4 Festivals
8.5 Cuisine
9 Education
9.1 Ben Youssef Madrasa
10 Sports
11 Transport and communications
11.1 Rail
11.2 Road
11.3 Air
12 Healthcare
13 International relations
13.1 Twin towns – sister cities
14 See also
15 References
15.1 Bibliography
16 Further reading
17 External links

Etymology

The exact meaning of the name is debated.[5] The probable origin of the name Marrakesh is from the Berber (Amazigh) words mur (n) akush (ⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ), which means "Land of God".[3] According to historian Susan Searight, however, the town's name was first documented in an 11th-century manuscript in the Qarawiyyin library in Fez, where its meaning was given as "country of the sons of Kush".[6] The word mur [7] is used now in Berber mostly in the feminine form tamurt. The same word "mur" appears in Mauretania, the North African kingdom from antiquity, although the link remains controversial as this name possibly originates from μαύρος mavros, the ancient Greek word for black.[5] The common English spelling is "Marrakesh",[8][9] although "Marrakech" (the French spelling) is also widely used.[3] The name is spelled Mṛṛakc in the Berber Latin alphabet, Marraquech in Spanish,[8][9] and "Mer-reksh" in Moroccan Arabic.[7]

From medieval times until around the beginning of the 20th century, the entire country of Morocco was known as the "Kingdom of Marrakesh", as the kingdom's historic capital city was often Marrakesh.[10][11] The name for Morocco is still "Marrakesh" to this day in Persian and Urdu (مراكش) as well as many other South Asian languages. Various European names for Morocco (Marruecos, Marrocos, Maroc, Marokko, etc.) are directly derived from the Berber word Murakush. Conversely, the city itself was in earlier times simply called Marocco City (or similar) by travelers from abroad. The name of the city and the country diverged after the Treaty of Fez made Morocco a French and Spanish protectorate, but the old interchangeable usage lasted widely until about the interregnum of Mohammed Ben Aarafa (1953–1955).[12] The latter episode set in motion the country's return to independence, when Morocco officially became al-Mamlaka al-Maġribiyya (المملكة المغربية) ("The Maghreb Kingdom"), its name no longer referring to the city of Marrakesh. Marrakesh is known by a variety of nicknames, including the "Red City", the "Ochre City" and "the Daughter of the Desert", and has been the focus of poetic analogies such as one comparing the city to "a drum that beats an African identity into the complex soul of Morocco."[13]
History
Main articles: History of Marrakesh and Timeline of Marrakesh

oroccan Arabic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Moroccan Arabic (commonly called Morocco Darija)
الدارجة Darija
Pronunciation [əddæɾiʒæ]
Native to Morocco
Native speakers
21 million (1995)[1]
Language family

Afro-Asiatic

Semitic
Central Semitic
Arabic
Maghrebi Arabic
Moroccan Arabic (commonly called Morocco Darija)

Writing system
Latin alphabet, Arabic alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3 ary
Glottolog moro1292[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Moroccan Arabic (known as Darija (الدارجة, [əddæɾiʒæ]) in Morocco) or simply "Maghrebi", is a language derived from a varieties of Arabic spoken in Morocco. It belongs to the Maghrebi Arabic language continuum and is mutually intelligible, to some extent, with Algerian Arabic but hardly the Tunisian Arabic. It shows a very strong historical and linguistic Berber influence on it.

The Arabic language, not spoken in daily life, is used for official communications by the government and other public bodies. However, Moroccan Arabic has a strong presence in Moroccan television entertainment, cinema and commercial advertising.

Contents

1 Dialects
1.1 Pre-Hilalian dialects
1.2 Hilalian dialects
2 Vocabulary
2.1 Substrates
2.2 Vocabulary and loanwords
3 Phonology
3.1 Vowels
3.2 Consonants
4 Writing
5 Grammar
5.1 Verbs
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.1.1 Past tense
5.1.1.2 Present tense
5.1.1.3 Other tenses
5.1.1.4 Negation
5.1.2 In detail
5.1.2.1 Table of verb forms
5.1.2.2 Sample Paradigms of Strong Verbs
5.1.2.2.1 Regular verb, form I, fʕel/yfʕel
5.1.2.2.2 Regular verb, form I, fʕel/yfʕel, assimilation-triggering consonant
5.1.2.2.3 Regular verb, form I, fʕel/yfʕol
5.1.2.2.4 Regular verb, form II, feʕʕel/yfeʕʕel
5.1.2.2.5 Regular verb, form III, faʕel/yfaʕel
5.1.2.2.6 Regular verb, form Ia, ttefʕel/yttefʕel
5.1.2.3 Sample Paradigms of Weak Verbs
5.1.2.3.1 Weak verb, form I, fʕa/yfʕa
5.1.2.3.2 Weak verb, form I, fʕa/yfʕi
5.1.2.4 Sample Paradigms of Hollow Verbs
5.1.2.4.1 Hollow verb, form I, fal/yfil
5.1.2.4.2 Hollow verb, form I, fal/yful
5.1.2.5 Sample Paradigms of Doubled Verbs
5.1.2.5.1 Doubled verb, form I, feʕʕ/yfeʕʕ
5.1.2.6 Sample Paradigms of Doubly Weak Verbs
5.1.2.7 Paradigms of Irregular Verbs
6 Social features
6.1 Evolution
6.2 Diglossia and social prestige
6.3 Code switching
6.4 Artistic expression
6.5 Scientific production
6.6 Newspapers
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links

Dialects

Moroccan Arabic is a cover term for several distinct dialects of Arabic several belonging to two genetically different groups: pre-Hilalian and Hilalian dialects.[3][4][4][5]
Pre-Hilalian dialects
Ethno-linguistic map of northern Morocco: Pre-Hilalian speaking areas in purple (Mountain Arabic) and blue (old urban, village).

Pre-Hilalian dialects are a result of early Arabization phases of the Maghreb, from the 7th to the 12th centuries, concerning the main urban settlements, the harbors, the religious centres (zaouias) as well as the main trade routes. The dialects are generally classified in three types: (old) urban, "village" and "mountain" sedentary and Jewish dialects.[4][6] In Morocco, several pre-Hilalian dialects are spoken:

(Old) urban dialects of Fes, Rabat, Salé, Taza, Tetouan, Ouezzane, Chefchaouen, Tangiers, Asilah, Larache, Ksar el-Kebir, Meknes and Marrakech.[5][7][8]
Mountain dialects of the southern and western Rif can be classified in two subdialects: northern dialects (spoken by tribes of Masmouda and Ghomara descent) and southern dialects (spoken by tribes of Zenata and Sanhaja descent).[5][9]
Sedentary ("village") dialects of Zerhoun and Sefrou and their neighboring tribes (Zerahna tribe for Zerhoun; Kechtala, Behalil and Yazgha tribes for Sefrou), remnants of pre-Hilalian dialects that were more widely spoken before the 12th century.
Judeo-Moroccan, nearly extinct but with an extensive remnant literature.

Hilalian dialects

Hilalian, or Bedouin, dialects were introduced to Morocco following the Hilalian Invasion and the settlement of several Hilalian and Mâqilian tribes in western Morocco by the Almohads and Almoravids.

The Hilalian dialects spoken in Morocco belong to the Mâqil subgroup,[6] a family that includes three main dialectal areas: western Morocco (Doukkala, Abda, Tadla, Chaouia, Gharb, Zaers and Sraghna), eastern Morocco (L'Oriental and the Oujda area) and western Algeria (central and western Oranie[10]), and the southernmost Hassaniya area (southern Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauritania).[11] Among the dialects, Hassaniya is often considered as distinct from Moroccan Arabic.

Modern urban koines are also based on the Hilalian dialects and have mainly Hilalian features.

According to Elimam's studies, the origin of this language would go back to over 3,000 years, being a singular evolution of the Punic language spoken by the Carthaginians under Berber influence. This Semitic language would be strongly Arabized after the Arab invasion to be virtually assimilated into the language of the conquerors.
Vocabulary
Substrates

Moroccan Arabic is characterized by a strong Berber stratum.

Following the Arab conquest, Berber languages remained widely spoken. During their Arabisation, Berbers became bilingual for generations before abandoning their language for Arabic; however, they kept a substantial Berber stratum that increases from the east to the west of the Maghreb, making Moroccan dialects of Arabic the ones most influenced by Berber.

More recently, the influx of Andalusi Muslims and Spanish-speaking–Moriscos (between the 15th and the 17th centuries) influenced Urban dialects with Spanish substrate (and loanwords).
Vocabulary and loanwords

Most vocabulary of Moroccan Arabic is derived from Old Arabic, Berber supplemented by French and Spanish loanwords. Depending on cultural background and degree of literacy, those who do speak Darija may prefer to use Arabic words instead of their counterpats borrowed from French or Spanish while those with western education often speak Darija with more French and Spanish loanwords and adopt code-switching between French or Spanish and Moroccan Arabic.

There are noticeable lexical differences between Moroccan Arabic and most other dialects. Some words are essentially unique to Moroccan Arabic: daba "now". Many others, however, are characteristic of Maghrebi Arabic as a whole including both innovations and unusual retentions of Classical vocabulary that disappeared elsewhere, duch as hbeṭ' "go down" from Classical habaṭ. Others are shared with Algerian Arabic such as hḍeṛ "talk", from Classical hadhar "babble", and temma "there", from Classical thamma.

There are a number of Moroccan Arabic dictionaries in existence:

A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: Moroccan-English, ed. Richard S. Harrell & Harvey Sobelman. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1963 (reprinted 2004.)
Mu`jam al-fuṣḥā fil-`āmmiyyah al-maghribiyyah معجم الفصحى في العامية المغربية, Muhammad Hulwi, Rabat: al-Madaris 1988.
Dictionnaire Colin d'arabe dialectal marocain (Rabat, éditions Al Manahil, ministère des Affaires Culturelles), by a Frenchman named Georges Séraphin Colin, who devoted nearly all his life to it from 1921 to 1977. The dictionary contains 60,000 entries and was published in 1993, after Colin's death.

Examples of words borrowed from Berber

Mush or mesh: cat (orig. Amouch) (pronounced [muʃ])
Khizu: carrots ([xizzu])
Matisha: tomato ([mɑtitʃɑ])
shhal: how much ([tʃħæl])
Takshita: typical Moroccan dress
Lalla: lady, madam
Henna: grandmother (jebli and northern urban dialects)
Dshar or tshar: zone, region ([tʃɑɾ])
Neggafa: wedding facilitator (orig. taneggaft) ([nɪɡɡafa])
sifet or sayfet: send ([sˤɑɪfɪtˤ])
Sebniya: veil (jebli and northern urban dialects)
Jaada : carrots (jebli and northern urban dialects)
sarred : synonyme of send (jebli and northern urban dialects)
shlaɣem : mustache
Awriz: heel (jebli and northern urban dialects)
But: navel (orig. bed), in the west
Tamara: hardship, worries
Tamssumant : effort

Examples of words borrowed from French

forshita: fourchette (fork) (pronounced [foɾʃitˤɑ])
tomobil or tonobile: automobile (car) ([tˤomobil])
telfaza: télévision (television) ([tɪlfɑzɑ])
radio: radio ([ɾɑdˤjo], rādio is common across most varieties of Arabic).
bartma: appartement (apartment) ([bɑɾtˤmɑ])
rambwan: rondpoint (traffic circle) ([ɾambwa])
tobis: autobus (bus) ([tˤobis])
kamera: caméra (camera) ([kɑmeɾɑ])
portable: portable (cell phone) ([poɾtˤɑbl])
tilifūn: téléphone (telephone) ([tilifuːn])
brika: briquet (lighter) ([bɾike])
parisiana: a French baguette, more common is komera, stick
disk: song
tran: train (train) ([træːn])
sbitar: hôpital (hospital) ([sbitɑːr])

xamples of words borrowed from Spanish

Some loans might have come through Andalusi Arabic brought by Moriscos when they were expelled from Spain following the Christian Reconquest or, alternatively, they date from the time of the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco.

rueda: rueda (wheel) (pronounced [ɾwedˤɑ])
kuzina: cocina (kitchen) ([kuzinɑ])
skwila: escuela (school) ([skwilɑ])
simana: semana (week) ([simɑnɑ])
manta: manta (blanket) ([mɑntˤɑ])
rial: real (five centimes; the term has also been borrowed into many other Arabic dialects) ([ɾjæl])
fundo: fondo (bottom of the sea or the swimming pool) ([fundˤo])
karrossa: carrosa (carrosse) ([kɑrosɑ])
kurda: cuerda (rope) ([koɾdˤɑ])
kama (in the north only): cama (bed) ([kɑmˤɑ])
blassa: plaza (place) ([blɑsɑ])
el banio: el baño (toilet) ([əl bɑnjo])
komer : eat (but Moroccans use the expression to name the Parisian bread) ([komeɾ])
Disko : song (in the north only) ([disko])
elmaryo : El armario (the cupboard)([elmɑɾjo)
blaya : playa (beach) ([blɑjɑ)
mariya : marea (water flow) ([mɑɾjɑ])

Examples of words borrowed from Portuguese and German

They are used in several coastal cities across the Moroccan coast like Oualidia, El Jadida, and Tangier.

Examples of regional differences

Now: "deba" in the majority of regions, but "druk" or "druka" is also used in some regions in the centre and south and "drwek" or "durk" in the east
When?: "fuqaš" in most regions,"fe-waxt" in the Northwest (Tangier-Tetouan) but "imta" in the Atlantic region and "weqtaš" in Rabat region
What?: "ašnu", "šnu" or "aš" in most regions, but "šenni", "šennu" in the north, "šnu", "š" in Fes, and "wašta", "wasmu", "waš" in the far east

Some useful sentences

Note: All sentences are written according to the transcription used in Richard Harrell, A Short Reference Grammar of Moroccan Arabic:

a i u = full vowels = normally [æ i u], but [ɑ e o] in the vicinity of an emphatic consonant or q ("vicinity" generally means not separated by a full vowel)
e = /ǝ/
q = /q/
x ġ = /x ɣ/
y = /j/
t = [ts]
š ž = /ʃ ʒ/
ḥ ʿ = /ħ ʕ/
ḍ ḷ ṛ ṣ ṭ ẓ = emphatic consonants = /dˤ lˤ rˤ sˤ tˤ zˤ/ (ṭ is not affricated, unlike t)

English Western Darija Northern (Jebli, Tetouani) Darija Eastern (Oujda) Darija
How are you? la bas? la bas? / bi-xayr?/ kif ntin/ntina? / amandra? la bas? / rak ġaya / rak šbab?
Can you help me? yemken-lek tʿaweni? teqder dʿaweni? waxa dʿaweni? yemken-lek tʿaweni?
Do you speak English? waš ka-tehder lengliziya / waš ka-tedwi be-l-lengliziya? waš ka-dehder be-l-lengliziya? / ka-tehder lengliziya? waš tehder lengliziya?
Excuse me smaḥ-liya smaḥ-li smaḥ-liya
Good luck lay awn / lay sehl
Good morning ṣbaḥ l-xir / ṣbaḥ n-nur
Good night teṣbaḥ ʿla xir lay ymsik be-xer teṣbaḥ ʿla xir
Goodbye be-slama / tḥălla be-slama / be-slama f had saʿa / huwa hadak be-slama
Happy new year sana saʿida
Hello s-salam ʿalikum / as-salamu ʿalaykum (Classical) / ʔahlan as-salamu ʿalaykum (Classical) / ʔahlan s-salam ʿlikum
How are you doing? la bas (ʿlik)?
How are you? ki dayer ? (masculine) / ki dayra ? (feminine) kif ntin? (masculine) / kif ntina? (feminine) ki rak?
Is everything okay? kul-ši mezyan ? kul-ši mezyan ? / kul-ši huwa hadak ? kul-ši mliḥ? / kul-ši zin?
Nice to meet you metšaṛṛfin [mǝt.ʃɑrˤrˤ.fen]
No thanks la šukran
Please ḷḷa yxallik / ʿafak ḷḷa yxallik / ḷḷa yʿizek / xayla ḷḷa yxallik / ḷḷa yʿizek
Take care tḥălla f-ṛaṣek tḥălla tḥălla f-ṛaṣek
Thank you very much šukran bezzaf
What do you do? faš xddam? / chno taddir škad ʿăddel? / šenni xaddam? (masculine) / šenni xaddama? (feminine) / š-ka-dexdem? / šini ka-teʿmel/ʿadal f-hyatak? faš texdem? (masculine) / faš txedmi ? (feminine)
What's your name? ašnu smiytek? / šu smiytek šenni ʔesmek? / kif-aš msemy nta/ntinah? wašta smiytek?
Where are you from? mnin nta? (masculine) / mnin nti? (feminine) mnayen ntina? min ntaya? (masculine) / min ntiya? (feminine)
Where are you going? fin ġadi temši? nayemmaši?/fayn maši? (masculine) / nayemmaša?/fayn mašya? (feminine) f-rak temši? / f-rak rayaḥ
You are welcome la šukr ʿla wažib / bla žmil la šukr ʿla wažib/maši muškil / dunya hania la šukr ʿla wažib
Phonology
Vowels

One of the most notable features of Moroccan Arabic is the collapse of short vowels. Initially, short /ă/ and /ĭ/ were merged into a phoneme /ə/ (however, some speakers maintain a difference between /ă/ and /ə/ when adjacent to pharyngeal /ʕ/ and /ħ/). This phoneme was then deleted entirely in most positions; for the most part, it is maintained only in the position /...CəC#/ or /...CəCC#/ (where C represents any consonant and # indicates a word boundary), i.e. when appearing as the last vowel of a word. When /ə/ is not deleted, it is pronounced as a very short vowel, tending towards [ɐ] in the vicinity of emphatic consonants, [a] in the vicinity of pharyngeal /ʕ/ and /ħ/ (for speakers who have merged /ă/ and /ə/ in this environment), and [ɪ] elsewhere. Original short /ŭ/ usually merges with /ə/ except in the vicinity of a labial or velar consonant. In positions where /ə/ was deleted, /ŭ/ was also deleted, and is maintained only as labialization of the adjacent labial or velar consonant; where /ə/ is maintained, /ŭ/ surfaces as [ʊ]. This deletion of short vowels can result in long strings of consonants (a feature shared with Berber and certainly derived from it). These clusters are never simplified; instead, consonants occurring between other consonants tend to syllabify, according to a sonorance hierarchy. Similarly, and unlike most other Arabic dialects, doubled consonants are never simplified to a single consonant, even when at the end of a word or preceding another consonant.

Some dialects are more conservative in their treatment of short vowels. For example, some dialects allow /ŭ/ in more positions. Dialects of the Sahara, and eastern dialects near the border of Algeria, preserve a distinction between /ă/ and /ĭ/ and allow /ă/ to appear at the beginning of a word, e.g. /ăqsˤărˤ/ "shorter" (standard /qsˤərˤ/), /ătˤlăʕ/ "go up!" (standard /tˤlăʕ/ or /tˤləʕ/), /ăsˤħab/ "friends" (standard /sˤħab/).

Long /a/, /i/ and /u/ are maintained as semi-long vowels, which are substituted for both short and long vowels in most borrowings from Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). Long /a/, /i/ and /u/ also have many more allophones than in most other dialects; in particular, /a/, /i/, /u/ appear as [ɑ], [e], in the vicinity of emphatic consonants, but [æ], , elsewhere. (Most other Arabic dialects only have a similar variation for the phoneme /a/.) In some dialects, such as that of Marrakech, front-rounded and other allophones also exist. Allophones in vowels usulally do not exist in loanwords.

Emphatic spreading (i.e. the extent to which emphatic consonants affect nearby vowels) occurs much less than in many other dialects. Emphasis spreads fairly rigorously towards the beginning of a word and into prefixes, but much less so towards the end of a word. Emphasis spreads consistently from a consonant to a directly following vowel, and less strongly when separated by an intervening consonant, but generally does not spread rightwards past a full vowel. For example, /bidˤ-at/ [bedɑt͡s] "eggs" (/i/ and /a/ both affected), /tˤʃaʃ-at/ [tʃɑʃæt͡s] "sparks" (rightmost /a/ not affected), /dˤrˤʒ-at/ [drˤʒæt͡s] "stairs" (/a/ usually not affected), /dˤrb-at-u/ [drˤbat͡su] "she hit him" (with [a] variable but tending to be in between [ɑ] and [æ]; no effect on /u/), /tˤalib/ [tɑlib] "student" (/a/ affected but not /i/). Contrast, for example, Egyptian Arabic, where emphasis tends to spread forward and backward to both ends of a word, even through several syllables.

Emphasis is audible mostly through its effects on neighboring vowels or syllabic consonants, and through the differing pronunciation of /t/ [t͡s] and /tˤ/ [t]. Actual pharyngealization of "emphatic" consonants is weak and may be absent entirely. In contrast with some dialects, vowels adjacent to emphatic consonants are pure; there is no diphthong-like transition between emphatic consonants and adjacent front vowels.
Consonants
Moroccan Arabic consonant phonemes[12] Labial Dental/Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal Glottal
plain emphatic labialized plain emphatic
Nasal m (mˤʷ)2 n
Plosive voiceless (p)3 t͡s, (t)1 tˤ k q6 ʔ
voiced b (bˤʷ)2 d dˤ ɡ6,7
Fricative voiceless f (fˤʷ)2 s8 sˤ ʃ χ ħ h
voiced (v)3 z8 zˤ ʒ7 ʁ ʕ
Tap ɾ ɾˤ4
Trill r9
Approximant l (lˤ)5 j w

In normal circumstances, non-emphatic /t/ is pronounced with noticeable affrication, almost like /t͡s/ (still distinguished from a sequence of /t/ + /s/), and hence is easily distinguishable from emphatic /tˤ/. However, in some recent loanwords from European languages, a non-affricated, non-emphatic [t] appears, distinguished from emphatic /tˤ/ primarily by its lack of effect on adjacent vowels (see above; an alternative analysis is possible).
mˤʷ, bˤʷ, fˤʷ are very distinct consonants that only occur geminated, and almost always come at the beginning of a word. They function completely differently from other emphatic consonants: They are pronounced with heavy pharyngealization, affect adjacent short/unstable vowels but not full vowels, and are pronounced with a noticeable diphthongal off-glide between one of these consonants and a following front vowel. Most of their occurrences can be analyzed as underlying sequences of /mw/, /fw/, /bw/ (which appear frequently in diminutives, for example). However, a few lexical items appear to have independent occurrences of these phonemes, e.g. /mˤmˤʷ-/ "mother" (with attached possessive, e.g. /mˤmˤʷək/ "your mother").
(p) and (v) occur mostly in recent borrowings from European languages, and may be assimilated to /b/ or /f/ in some speakers.
Unlike in most other Arabic dialects (but, again, similar to Berber), non-emphatic /r/ and emphatic /rˤ/ are two entirely separate phonemes, almost never contrasting in related forms of a word.
(lˤ) is rare in native words; in nearly all cases of native words with vowels indicating the presence of a nearby emphatic consonant, there is a nearby triggering /tˤ/, /dˤ/, /sˤ/, /zˤ/ or /rˤ/. Many recent European borrowings appear to require (lˤ) or some other unusual emphatic consonant in order to account for the proper vowel allophones; but an alternative analysis is possible for these words where the vowel allophones are considered to be (marginal) phonemes on their own.
Original /q/ splits lexically into /q/ and /ɡ/ in most dialects but /q/ is preserved all the time in all of the big cities such as Casablanca, Fes, Tangier, etc. and all of the montagneious regions; for all words, both alternatives exist.
Original /dʒ/ normally appears as /ʒ/, but as /ɡ/ (sometimes /d/) if a sibilant, lateral or rhotic consonnant appears later in the same stem: /ɡləs/ "he sat" (MSA /dʒalas/), /ɡzzar/ "butcher" (MSA /dʒazzaːr/), /duz/ "go past" (MSA /dʒuːz/) like in western Algerian dialects.
Original /s/ is converted to /ʃ/ if /ʃ/ occurs elsewhere in the same stem, and /z/ is similarly converted to /ʒ/ as a result of a following /ʒ/: /ʃəmʃ/ "sun" vs. MSA /ʃams/, /ʒuʒ/ "two" vs. MSA /zawdʒ/ "pair", /ʒaʒ/ "glass" vs. MSA /zudʒaːdʒ/, etc. This does not apply to recent borrowings from MSA (e.g. /mzaʒ/ "disposition"), nor as a result of the negative suffix /ʃ/ or /ʃi/.
Trill /r/ is a result of gemination of a flap /ɾ/.

Writing

Nasal consonant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Nasal stop)
This article is about nasal stop consonants. For nasal fricative consonants, see true nasal fricatives.
Manners of articulation

Obstruent
Stop
Affricate
Fricative
Sibilant
Sonorant
Nasal
Flap/Tap
Approximant
Liquid
Vowel
Semivowel
Lateral
Trill

Airstreams

Pulmonic
Ejective
Implosive
Nonplosive
Lingual (clicks)
Linguo-pulmonic
Linguo-ejective
Percussive

Related

Alliteration
Assonance
Consonance

v t e

In phonetics, a nasal, also called a nasal occlusive, nasal stop in contrast with a nasal fricative, or nasal continuant, is an occlusive consonant produced with a lowered velum, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasals in English are [n] and [m], in words such as nose and mouth. Nasal occlusives are nearly universal in human languages. There are also other kinds of nasal consonants in some languages.

Contents

1 Definition
2 Voiceless nasals
3 Other kinds of nasal consonant
4 Languages without nasals
5 Lack of phonemic nasals
6 Lack of phonetic nasals
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography

Definition

Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through the nose but not through the mouth, as it is blocked (occluded) by the lips or tongue. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely, non-occlusive consonants may be nasalized.

Most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds [n] and [m] are among the most common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few languages such as Burmese, Welsh, Icelandic and Guaraní. (Compare oral stops, which block off the air completely, and fricatives, which obstruct the air with a narrow channel. Both stops and fricatives are more commonly voiceless than voiced, and are known as obstruents.)

In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not significantly restrict the escape of air (as it can freely escape out the nose). However, nasals are also obstruents in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, means that nasal occlusives behave both like sonorants and like obstruents. For example, nasals tend to pattern with other sonorants such as [r] and [l], but in many languages, they may develop from or into stops.

Acoustically, nasals have bands of energy at around 200 and 2,000 Hz.
Voiced Voiceless
Description IPA Description IPA
voiced bilabial nasal [m] voiceless bilabial nasal [m̥]
voiced labiodental nasal [ɱ] voiceless labiodental nasal [ɱ̊]
voiced dental nasal [n̪] voiceless dental nasal [n̪̊]
voiced alveolar nasal 1 [n] voiceless alveolar nasal 1 [n̥]
voiced retroflex nasal [ɳ] voiceless retroflex nasal [ɳ̊ ]
voiced palatal nasal [ɲ] voiceless palatal nasal [ ɲ̥]
voiced velar nasal [ŋ] voiceless velar nasal [ŋ̊]
voiced uvular nasal [ɴ] voiceless uvular nasal [ɴ̥]

1. ^ The symbol ⟨n⟩ is commonly used to represent the dental nasal as well, rather than ⟨n̪⟩, as it is rarely distinguished from the alveolar nasal.

Examples of languages containing nasal occlusives:

The voiced retroflex nasal is [ɳ] is a common sound in Languages of India.

The voiced palatal nasal [ɲ] is a common sound in European languages, such as: Spanish ⟨ñ⟩, French and Italian ⟨gn⟩, Catalan and Hungarian ⟨ny⟩, Czech and Slovak ⟨ň⟩, Polish ⟨ń⟩, Occitan and Portuguese ⟨nh⟩, Serbo-Croatian ⟨nj⟩, and (before a vowel) Modern Greek ⟨νι⟩.

Many Germanic languages, including German, Dutch, English and Swedish, as well as varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and Cantonese, have [m], [n] and [ŋ]. Tamil has a six-fold distinction between [m], [n̪], [n], [ɳ], [ɲ] and [ŋ] (ம,ந,ன,ண,ஞ,ங).

Catalan, Occitan, Spanish, and Italian have [m], [n], [ɲ] as phonemes, and [ɱ] and [ŋ] as allophones. Nevertheless, in several American dialects of Spanish, there is no palatal nasal but only a palatalized nasal, [nʲ], as in English canyon.

In Brazilian Portuguese and Angolan Portuguese [ɲ], written ⟨nh⟩, is typically pronounced as [ȷ̃], a nasal palatal approximant, a nasal glide (in Polish, this feature is also possible as an allophone). Semivowels in Portuguese often nasalize before and always after nasal vowels, resulting in [ȷ̃] and [w͂]. What would be coda nasal occlusives in other West Iberian languages is only slightly pronounced before dental consonants. Outside this environment the nasality is spread over the vowel or become a nasal diphthong (mambembe [mɐ̃ˈbẽjbi], outside the final, only in Brazil, and mantém [mɐ̃ˈtẽj ~ mɐ̃ˈtɐ̃j] in all Portuguese dialects).

The term 'nasal occlusive' (or 'nasal stop') is generally abbreviated to nasal. However, there are also nasalized fricatives, nasalized flaps, nasal glides, and nasal vowels, as in French, Portuguese, and Polish. In the IPA, nasal vowels and nasalized consonants are indicated by placing a tilde (~) over the vowel or consonant in question: French sang [sɑ̃], Portuguese bom [bõ].
Voiceless nasals

A few languages have phonemic voiceless nasal occlusives. Among them are Icelandic, Faroese, Burmese, Jalapa Mazatec, Kildin Sami, Welsh, and Central Alaskan Yup'ik. Iaai of New Caledonia has an unusually large number of them, with /m̥ m̥ʷ n̪̥ ɳ̊ ɲ̊ ŋ̊/, along with a number of voiceless approximants.
Other kinds of nasal consonant

Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) distinguish purely nasal consonants, the nasal occlusives such as m n ng in which the airflow is purely nasal, from partial nasal consonants such as prenasalized stops and prestopped nasals, which are nasal for only part of their duration, as well as from nasalized consonants, which have simultaneous oral and nasal airflow.[1] In some languages, such as Portuguese, a nasal consonant may have occlusive and non-occlusive allophones. In general, therefore, a nasal consonant may be:

a nasal occlusive, such as English m, n, ng
a nasal approximant, as in Brazilian Portuguese nh
a nasal flap, such as the nasal retroflex lateral flap in Pashto
prenasalized stops, prestopped nasals and post-stopped nasals
a nasal click, such as Zulu nq, nx, nc
other nasalized consonants, such as nasalized fricatives

Prenasalized consonants are phonetic sequences of a nasal and an obstruent (or occasionally a non-nasal sonorant such as [ɺ]) that behave phonologically like single consonants. The primary reason for considering these to be single consonants, rather than clusters as in English finger or member, lies in their behavior; however, there may also be phonetic correlates which distinguish prenasalized consonants from clusters. Because of the additional difficulty in both articulation and timing, prenasalized fricatives and sonorants are not as common as prenasalized stops or affricates, and the presence of the former implies the latter.[1]

In most languages, when a prenasalized consonant is described as "voiceless", it is only the oral portion that is voiceless, while the nasal portion is modally voiced. Thus a language may have "voiced" [ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ] and "voiceless" [ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk]. However, in some Southern Min (incl. Taiwanese) dialects, voiced stops are preceded by voiceless prenasalization: [ᵐ̥b ⁿ̥d ⁿ̥ɺ ᵑ̊ɡ].[2]

Prenasalized stops may be distinguished from post-stopped nasals (orally released nasals), such as the /mᵇ nᵈ ɲᶡ ŋᶢ/ of Acehnese and similar sounds (including voiceless /mᵖ/ etc.) in many dialects of Chinese.[3] (Though at least in the Chinese case, in some dialects the nasalization continues in diminished degree through to the vowel, indicating that the consonant is partially denasalized rather than actually having an oral release.) No language is known to contrast the two types of consonant, which are distinguished primarily by a difference in timing (brief nasal followed by longer stop vs longer nasal followed by brief stop), nor are any expected to.[4]

Contents

1 Geographic distribution
1.1 Africa
1.2 East Asia
1.3 South America
1.4 South Asia
1.5 Oceania
2 Transcription
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References

Geographic distribution
Africa

The Bantu languages are famous for their prenasalized stops (the "nt" in "Bantu" is an example), but similar sounds occur across Africa and around the world. Ghana's politician Kwame Nkrumah had a prenasalized stop in his name, as does the capital of Chad, N'Djamena (African prenasalized stops are often written with apostrophes in Latin script transcription although this may sometimes indicate syllabic nasals instead).
East Asia

In Southern Min languages, such as Teochew, prenasalized stops are also found. The prenasalized stops in the southern Min languages evolved from the nasals of Middle Chinese and thus are historically different from the voiced obstruents found in Wu and Xiang languages.

Prenasalized consonants are widely utilized in Loloish languages of Lolo–Burmese family, such as Yi and Naxi. The following table illustrates the prenasalized consonants in northern Yi.
Yi Character Official Pinyin IPA Meaning
ꂃ nbo [mbo˧] skirt
ꅝ ndo [ndo˧] drink
ꈾ mge [ŋgɤ˧] buckwheat
ꌅ nzy [nd͡zɿ˧] control
ꎧ nry [nɖ͡ʐɿ˧] wine, liquor
ꐳ nji [nd͡ʑi˧] quick, fast

The prenasalized stops also occur in several branches of the Hmong–Mien language family of Southern China and Southeast Asia.

In dialects of northern Japan, standard voiced stops are prenasalized, and voiceless stops are voiced. For example, /itiɡo/ "strawberry" is [it̠͡ɕiɡo] in most of the south, but [id̠͡ʑɨᵑɡo] in much of the north. Prenasalized stops are also reconstructed for Old Japanese.
South America

The Guaraní language has a set of prenasalized stops which are alternate allophonically with simple nasal continuants; they appear only in words without nasalized vowels.
South Asia

The Indo-Aryan languages Sinhala and Dhivehi too have prenasalized stops. The Sinhala alphabet has prenasalized versions of g, ḍ (voiced retroflex stop), d̪ (voiced dental stop) and b.
A prenasalized consonant [ᵐb] in Sri Lanka Malay ga.mbar has a shorter nasal segment and a longer preceding vowel
An [mb] cluster in Sri Lanka Malay sam.bal has a longer nasal and a shorter preceding vowel

Sri Lankan Malay has been in contact with Sinhala a long time and has also developed prenasalized stops. The spectrograms on the right show the word gaambar with a prenasalized stops and the word sambal with a sequence of nasal+voiced stop, yet not prenasalized. The difference in the length of the [m] part is clearly visible. The nasal in the prenasalized word is much shorter than the nasal in the other word.

This phonetic information is complemented by phonological evidence: The first vowel in gaambar is lengthened, which only happens in open syllables in Sri Lanka Malay. The syllabification of gaambar must be gaa.mbar then, and the syllabification of sambal sam.bal.
Oceania

An example of the unitary behavior of prenasalized stops is provided by Fijian. In this language, as in many in Melanesia, there is a series of voiceless stops, [p, t, k], and a series of prenasalized stops, [mb, nd, ŋɡ], but there are no simple voiced stops, [b, d, ɡ]. In addition, Fijian allows prenasalized stops at the beginning of a word, but it does not allow other consonant sequences. Thus the prenasalized stops behave like ordinary consonants.

When Tok Pisin is spoken by people in Papua New Guinea who have similar phonologies in their languages, voiced consonants are prenasalized. For example, the preposition bilong (from English belong) is pronounced [mbiloŋ] by many Melanesians. The prenasalization behaves as a phonetic detail of voicing, rather than a separate segment.

Prenasalized stops are also found in Australia. The Eastern Arrernte language has both prenasalized stops and prestopped nasals, but does not have any other word-initial consonant clusters. Compare [mʷarə] "good", [ᵐpʷaɻə] "make", [ᵖmʷaɻə] "coolamon".
Transcription

When unambiguous, prenasalized consonants may simply be transcribed ⟨mb, nd, ŋɡ⟩ etc. In the IPA, a tie bar may be used to specify that these are single segments: ⟨m͜b, n͜d, ŋ͡ɡ⟩. Another common transcription practice is to make the nasal superscript: ⟨ᵐb, ⁿd, ᵑɡ⟩. An old convention of the IPA is to mark the nasal as 'short' (this before the short and nonsyllabic signs diverged): ⟨m̆b, n̆d, ŋ̆ɡ⟩.[5]
See also

Preploded nasal
List of Latin digraphs#M

Notes

Silverman (1995:65)
Chan (1987) "Post-stopped nasals in Chinese: an areal study", UCLA WPP #68
Chan (1987) Post-stopped nasals in Chinese: an areal study
Cohn (1990) "Phonetic and Phonological Rules of Nasalization", UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 76, p. 7.

Principles of the IPA (1947: 17–18)

References

Silverman, Daniel (1995), "Optional, conditional, and obligatory prenasalization in Bafanji", Journal of West African Languages 25: 57–62

Categories:

Nasal consonants

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>>118627618
Вали на хуй, мерзкая тварь! Решила она здесь помощь и сострадания найти. Ах посмотрите, какой он секой, а собственном глазу даже бревна не видит. Съебись.

In linguistics, pre-stopping, also known as pre-occlusion or pre-plosion, is a phonological process involving the historical or allophonic insertion of a very short stop consonant before a sonorant, such as a short [d] before a nasal [n] or a lateral [l]. The resulting sounds ([ᵈn, ᵈl]) are called pre-stopped consonants, or sometimes pre-ploded or (in Celtic linguistics) pre-occluded consonants, although technically [n] may be considered an occlusive/stop without the pre-occlusion.

A pre-stopped consonant behaves phonologically as a single consonant. That is, like affricates and trilled affricates, the reasons for considering these sequences to be single consonants lies primarily in their behavior.[1] Phonetically they are similar or equivalent to stops with a nasal or lateral release.

Contents

1 Terminology
2 In European languages
3 In Australian languages
4 In Mon–Khmer languages
5 In Austronesian languages
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography

Terminology

There are three terms for this phenomenon. The most common by far is prestopped/prestopping.[2][3] In descriptions of the languages of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific, preploded/preplosion is common,[4] though prestopped is also used.[5] In accounts of Celtic languages, preoccluded/preocclusion is used almost exclusively.[6][7] Technically, nasals are already occlusives, and are often considered stops; however, some prefer to restrict the term 'stop' for consonants in which there is complete cessation of airflow, so 'prenasalized stop' and 'prestopped nasal' are not tautologies.[8]
In European languages

In Manx, pre-occlusion occurs in stressed monosyllabic words (i.e. words one syllable long), and is also found in Cornish on certain stressed syllables. The inserted stop is homorganic with the sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. In transcription, pre-occluding consonants in final position are typically written with a superscripted letter in Manx[9] and in Cornish.[10]

Examples in Manx include:[11][12]

/m/ → [ᵇm]: trome /t̪roːm/ → [t̪roᵇm] "heavy"
/l/ → [ᵈl]: shooyll /ʃuːl/ → [ʃuːᵈl] "walking"
/n/ → [ᵈn]: kione /kʲoːn/ → [kʲoᵈn] "head"
/nʲ/ → [ᵈnʲ]: ein /eːnʲ/ → [eːᵈnʲ] "birds"
/ŋ/ → [ᶢŋ]: lhong /luŋ/ → [luᶢŋ] "ship"

In Cornish, pre-occlusion mostly affects the reflexes of older geminate/fortis /m/, intrinsically geminated in Old Cornish, and /nn/ (or /N/ depending on preferred notation). It also arises in a few cases where the combination /n+j/ was apparently re-interpreted as /nnʲ/.

Examples in Cornish:

/m#/ → [ᵇm]: mabm [mæᵇm] "mother"
/VmV/ → [bm]: hebma [ˈhɛbmɐ] "this"
/nn#/ → [ᵈn]: pedn [pɛᵈn] "head"
/VnnV/ → [dn]: pednow [ˈpɛdnɔ(ʊ)] "heads"

In Faroese, pre-occlusion also occurs, as in kallar [ˈkadlaɹ] 'you call, he calls', seinna [ˈsaiːdna] 'latter'. A similar feature occurs in Icelandic, where the pre-occluding consonant is voiceless, as in galli [ˈkatlɪ] ('error'); sæll [ˈsaitl̥], seinna [ˈseitna]; Spánn [ˈspautn̥].
In Australian languages

Pre-stopped nasals and laterals are found in some Australian Aboriginal languages, such as Kuyani (Adnyamathanha), Arabana, Wangkangurru, Diyari, Aranda (nasals only), and Martuthunira (laterals only).[13] Adnyamathanha, for example, has the pre-stopped nasals [bm, ɟɲ, d̪n̪, dn, ɖɳ ] and the pre-stopped laterals [ ɟʎ, d̪l̪, dl, ɖɭ ], though these are all in allophonic variation with the simple nasals and laterals [m, ɲ, n̪, n, ɳ , ʎ, l̪, l, ɭ ].
In Mon–Khmer languages

Pre-stopped nasals are also found in several branches of Austroasiatic, especially in the North Aslian languages and Shompen, where historical word-final nasals, m n *ŋ, have become pre-stopped, or even full voiced stops [b d ɡ].
In Austronesian languages

Hiw of Vanuatu is the only Austronesian language that has been reported to have a pre-stopped velar lateral approximant /ᶢʟ/.[14] Its phonological behavior clearly defines it as a prestopped lateral, rather than as a laterally released stop.[14]

Nemi of New Caledonia has consonants that have been described as postnasalized stops,[15] but could possibly be described as prestopped nasals.[16]
See also

Nasal release
Lateral release (phonetics)
Prenasalized consonant

References

Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 128. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
Keith Brown, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
Adelaar & Himmelmann (2005) The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar
Botma (2004) Phonological Aspects of Nasality
Ball & Fife (2002) The Celtic Languages
"Pre-occluded" is also used in Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 102. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
Williams, Nicholas. 1994. "An Mhanainnis", in Stair na Gaeilge: in ómós do Pádraig Ó Fiannachta. Maigh Nuad: Roinn na Sean-Ghaeilge, Colásite Phádraig. §X.4.10. ISBN 0-901519-90-1
Williams, Nicholas. 2006. "Pre-occlusion in Cornish", in Writing on Revived Cornish. Cathair na Mart: Evertype. ISBN 978-1-904808-08-4
Broderick, George (1984–86). A Handbook of Late Spoken Manx. Tübingen: Niemeyer. pp. 3:28–34. ISBN 3-484-42903-8. (vol. 1). ISBN 3-484-42904-6 (vol. 2)., ISBN 3-484-42905-4 (vol. 3). Retrieved 2009-03-05.
Broderick, George (1993). "Manx". In M. J. Ball and J. Fife (eds.). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 228–85 [236]. ISBN 0-415-01035-7.
Mielke 2008:135
François (2010)
Ozanne-Rivierre (1995:54).

François (2010:403).

Bibliography

Eberhard, Dave (2004). "Mamaindé Pre-Stopped Nasals: An optimality account of vowel dominance and a proposal for the Identical Rhyme Constraint" (PDF). SIL Electronic Working Papers.

François, Alexandre (2010), "Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw: Resolving the ambiguity of a complex segment", Phonology 27 (3): 393–434, doi:10.1017/s0952675710000205
Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p. 128.
Jeff Mielke, 2008. The emergence of distinctive features.
Ozanne-Rivierre, Françoise (1995), "Structural changes in the languages of Northern New Caledonia", Oceanic Linguistics 34: 45–72, doi:10.2307/3623111

Categories:

PlosivesNasal consonantsLanguages of EuropeCornish languageIcelandic languageFaroese languageManx language

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>>118627685
Нет. О том, что всё это протухло. И делать здесь, наверно, больше нечего.
Просто по привычке захожу, читаю, иногда что-то пишу.
Но последние годы стало как-то совсем грустно.
Мой первый личный тред за долгое время, да еще и от женского лица.
Обычно предпочитаю не палиться. Грустно.

Henry Jenner
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Cornish scholar. For his father, see Henry Jenner (bishop).
Henry Jenner

Henry Jenner FSA (1848–1934) was a British scholar of the Celtic languages, a Cornish cultural activist, and the chief originator of the Cornish language revival.

Jenner was born at St Columb Major on 8 August 1848. He was the son of Henry Lascelles Jenner, who was one of two curates to the Rector of St. Columb Major, and later consecrated though not enthroned as the first Bishop of Dunedin and the grandson of Herbert Jenner-Fust.[1] In 1869 Jenner became a clerk in the Probate Division of the High Court and two years later was nominated by the Primate at Canterbury for a post in the Department of Ancient Manuscripts in the British Museum, his father then being the Rector of Wingham, a small village near Canterbury.

Contents

1 Interest in the Cornish language
2 Family
3 Political leanings
4 Later years
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

Interest in the Cornish language

His earliest interest in the Cornish language is mentioned in an article by Robert Morton Nance entitled "Cornish Beginnings",[2]

When Jenner was a small boy at St. Columb, his birthplace, he heard at the table some talk between his father and a guest that made him prick up his ears, and no doubt brought sparkles to his eyes which anyone who told him something will remember. They were speaking of a Cornish language. At the first pause in their talk he put his query... 'But is there really a Cornish Language?' and on being assured that at least there had been one, he said 'Then I'm Cornish—that's mine!'

Plaque at St Columb Major, on the site of the old vestry where his father worked (now called Bond House, in Market Square)

In 1874 Henry Jenner continued his interest in Celtic languages, and in 1875 he read a paper to the Philological Society in London, his subject being the Manx language. The following year he read another paper on the subject of the Cornish language at Mount's Bay. In 1877 he discovered, whilst working in the British Museum, forty two lines of a medieval play written in Cornish around the year 1450.

In 1903 he was made Bard of the Breton Gorsedd, and along with L.C.R. Duncombe-Jewell he jointly founded the first Cornish language society, "Cowethas Kelto-Kernuak". The following year Jenner and Duncombe-Jewell took Cornwall's application for membership of the Celtic Congress, then meeting in Caernarfon. His Bardic name was Gwas Myghal ('Servant of Michael').

Shortly afterwards he published his Handbook of the Cornish language and the Cornish Revival was born. His version of Cornish was based upon the form of the language used in West Cornwall in the 18th century, although his pupil Robert Morton Nance would later steer the language revival towards mediaeval Cornish.

At a time when many people thought the Cornish language had died Jenner observed[3]

There has never been a time when there has been no person in Cornwall without a knowledge of the Cornish language … The reason why a Cornishman should learn Cornish, the outward and audible sign of his separate nationality, is sentimental, and not in the least practical, and if everything sentimental were banished from it, the world would not be as pleasant a place as it is.

In 2010, Michael Everson published a new edition entitled Henry Jenner's Handbook of the Cornish Language, which contains modern IPA phonetic transcriptions to make clear to modern readers what phonology Jenner was recommending. The book also contains three essays written by Jenner thirty years prior to the 1904 publication, as well as some examples of a number of Christmas and New Years cards sent out by Jenner containing original verse by him in Cornish and English.[4]
Family

Jenner married Kitty Lee Rawlings in 1877 (she was a novelist and author of non-fiction under the name Kitty Lee).[5] A biography of Henry and Katherine, including much information about the context in which their work appeared, was published in 2004 by Derek R. Williams.[6]
Political leanings

Jenner was a Tory and Jacobite. He and his wife supported the Order of the White Rose (OWR), a society of Stuart sympathizers of which he was chancellor. He also actively supported The Royalist, a journal which ran from 1890 to 1905.[7]
Later years
Former home of Henry Jenner in Hayle
Commemorative Plaque on the home of the Jenners in Hayle

After working at the British Museum for more than forty years,[1] in 1909 Jenner and his wife Kitty[8] retired to Hayle, his wife's home town, and in January 1912 he was elected as the Librarian of the Morrab Library, a post he held until 1927. He also served as President of both the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society and of the Royal Institution of Cornwall.[9] Jenner had married Kitty Lee Rawlings, herself a novelist and writer on art,[1] in 1877.[10] He died on 8 May 1934 and is buried in St. Uny's Church, Lelant.

Before he died, he said: "The whole object of my life has been to inculcate into Cornish people a sense of their Cornishness."

He contributed to the Catholic Encyclopedia with articles on Catholic Liturgical Rites.[11]
See also

Richard Gendall
Ken George
Robert Morton Nance
Dolly Pentreath
Nicholas Williams

References

"Obituary: Mr. Henry Jenner (transcription)". London: The Times. Thursday, 10 May 1934; Issue 46750. p. 19; col A. Retrieved 20 December 2008. Check date values in: |date= (help)
page 368, Old Cornwall, Volume V, Number 9 published in 1958.
Rebuilding the Celtic languages By Diarmuid O'Néill (Page 222)
Jenner, Henry. 2010. Henry Jenner's Handbook of the Cornish Language. Revised by Michael Everson. Cathair na Mart: Evertype. ISBN 978-1-904808-37-4
Ellis, P. B. (1974) The Cornish Language. London: Routledge; pp. 144, 223
Williams, Derek R., editor. Henry and Katharine Jenner, A Celebration of Cornwall’s Culture, Language and Identity. London: Francis Boutle. ISBN 978-1-903427-19-4
P. W. Thomas (May 2005). Henry Jenner. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 14 January 2010.
see Peter W. Thomas, "Jenner, Henry (1848–1934)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn,[1], (accessed 19 August 2007), for more information on both Henry and Kitty Jenner.
Peter W. Thomas, 'Jenner, Henry (1848–1934)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Oxford University Press, May 2005 accessed 15 Nov 2007
"Index entry". FreeBMD. ONS. Retrieved 20 December 2008.

Articles on the Liturgical use of Creeds, the Celtic Rite [2], Mozarabic Rite [3], East Syrian Rite [4], Ambrosian Liturgy and Rite [5], the Gallican Rite [6] at the Catholic Encyclopedia.

Further reading

Williams, D. R. (2004). Henry and Katharine Jenner: A Celebration of Cornwall's Culture, Language and Identity. Francis Boutle Publishers. ISBN 978-1-903427-19-4.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Henry Jenner.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Henry Jenner
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Henry Jenner

Works by Henry Jenner at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Henry Jenner at Internet Archive
Henry Jenner (Gwas Myghal) at the Gorseth Kernow website>>118627923

>>118627199
>ложному видению как работает эта борда
А есть какое-то единственно правильное видение?
покормил зеленого

William Butterfield
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
William Butterfield
William Butterfield.jpg
Born 7 September 1814
Died 23 February 1900 (aged 85)
Nationality British
Occupation Architect
Awards Royal Gold Medal (1884)
Buildings St Ninian's Cathedral, Perth in Scotland, St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne in Australia
Projects Keble College, Oxford

William Butterfield (7 September 1814 – 23 February 1900) was a Gothic Revival architect and associated with the Oxford Movement (or Tractarian Movement). He is noted for his use of polychromy.

Contents

1 Biography
2 Works
3 Sources
4 References
5 External links

Biography

William Butterfield was born in London in 1814. His parents were strict non-conformists who ran a chemist's shop in the Strand. He was one of nine children and was educated at a local school. At the age of 16, he was apprenticed to Thomas Arber, a builder in Pimlico, who later became bankrupt. He studied architecture under E. L. Blackburne (1833–1836). From 1838 to 1839, he was an assistant to Harvey Eginton, an architect in Worcester, where he became articled. He established his own architectural practice at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1840.

From 1842 Butterfield was involved with the Cambridge Camden Society, later The Ecclesiological Society. He contributed designs to the Society's journal, The Ecclesiologist. His involvement influenced his architectural style. He also drew religious inspiration from the Oxford Movement and as such, he was very high church despite his non-conformist upbringing. He was a Gothic revival architect, and as such he reinterpreted the original Gothic style in Victorian terms. Many of his buildings were for religious use, although he also designed for colleges and schools.

Butterfield's church of All Saints, Margaret Street, London, was, in the view of Henry-Russell Hitchcock, the building that initiated the High Victorian Gothic era. It was designed in 1850, completed externally by 1853 and consecrated in 1859.[1] Flanked by a clergy house and school, it was intended as a "model" church by its sponsors, the Ecclesiological Society. The church was built of red-brick, a material long out of use in London, patterned with bands of black brick, the first use of polychrome brick in the city, with bands of stone on the spire. The interior was even more richly decorated, with marble and tile marquetry.[1]

In 1849, just before Butterfield designed the church, John Ruskin had published his Seven Lamps of Architecture, in which he had urged the study of Italian Gothic and the use of polychromy. Many contemporaries perceived All Saints' as Italian in character, though in fact it combines fourteenth century English details, with a German-style spire.[1]

Also in 1850 he designed, without polychromy, St Matthias in Stoke Newington, with a bold gable-roofed tower. At St Bartholomew's, Yealhampton in the same year, Butterfield used a considerable amount of marquetry work for the interior, and built striped piers, using two colours of marble.[1]
Blue plaque, 42 Bedford Square, London

At Oxford, Butterfield designed Keble College, in a style radically divergent from the University's existing traditions of Gothic architecture, its walls boldly striped with various colours of brick. Intended for clerical students, it was largely built in 1868–70, on a fairly domestic scale, with a more monumental chapel of 1873–6. In his buildings of 1868–72 at Rugby School, the polychromy is even more brash.[2]

Butterfield received the RIBA Gold Medal in 1884. He died in London in 1900, and was buried in a simple Gothic tomb in Tottenham Cemetery, Haringey, North London. The grave can be easily seen from the public path through the cemetery, close to the gate from Tottenham Churchyard. There is a blue plaque on his house in Bedford Square, London.
Works

Butterfield's buildings include:
Keble College Chapel, Oxford
St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, Australia
St Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, Scotland
William Butterfield's original design for the new Anglican cathedral (St Paul's) in Melbourne, Australia
All Saints, Margaret Street, London (detail of interior)
St Mary's church, Brookfield
St Andrew's Church, Rugby
St Barnabas's Church, Horton-cum-Studley
St Mark's Church, Dundela, Belfast
Font of Ottery St Mary Parish Church, Devon
Chalice designed by William Butterfield, 1856–1857 (hallmarked) V&A Museum no. CIRC.521–1962

Highbury Congregational Church (now Cotham Church) Bristol (Butterfield's first work)
St Augustine's College, Canterbury, Kent, 1845[3]
St. John the Baptist parish church, Hellidon, Northamptonshire: restoration, 1845–47[4]
St. Nicholas' Church, Thanington Without, Kent: restoration, 1846[3]
St. Nicholas' Church, Ash, Kent: restoration, 1846[3]
Abbey Church of Saints Peter & Paul, Dorchester on Thames, Oxfordshire: restoration, 1846–53[5]
St. Andrew's parish church, Ogbourne St Andrew, Wiltshire: restoration, 1847–49[6] and vicarage, 1848[7]
St Mary's Church, Ottery St Mary, Devon restoration 1849 - 1850[8]
Goldern Lion Hotel (1850) in the Norfolk sea-side town of Hunstanton.[9]
St Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, Scotland, 1850
St. James & St. Anne parish church and vicarage, Alfington, Devon, 1850
Wantage Cemetery, Berkshire: chapel, 1850[10]
St. Mary's Church: stained glass windows, 1851
St. Martin's Church, Great Mongeham, Kent: restoration, 1851[3]
Milton Ernest Hall, Bedfordshire, 1853–1858
St. Mary's Church, Langley, Kent, 1853[3]
St. Mary and St. Melor parish church, Amesbury, Wiltshire: restoration, 1853[11]
St. Nicholas' Hospital, Salisbury, Wiltshire: restoration, 1854[12]
St. Mary's parish church, Marlston, Berkshire, 1855[13]
All Saints' Church, Braishfield, Hampshire, 1855
St. John the Evangelist's parish church, Milton, Oxfordshire, 1856[14]

>>118623740 (OP)
Посмотрел на автора сие шедевра и чуть не обосрался. Говноблогеры теперь книги пишут?

>>118627923
Пошла ты знаешь куда со своими женскими биопроблемы? Думаю знаешь.

>>118627689
Рот закрой)

Balliol College, Oxford
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Colleges and halls of the University of Oxford

Balliol College
Oxford - Balliol College - geograph.org.uk - 1329613.jpg

College name The Master and Scholars of Balliol College
Named after John I de Balliol
Established 1263
Sister college St John's College, Cambridge
Master Sir Drummond Bone
Undergraduates 387[1] (2011/2012)
Graduates 228
Location Broad Street
Balliol College, Oxford is located in Oxford city centre
Balliol College, Oxford

Location of Balliol College within central OxfordCoordinates: 51.7547°N 1.2578°W
Homepage
Boatclub
Balliol College Oxford Coat Of Arms.svg
Blazon Azure, a lion rampant argent, crowned or, impaling Gules, an orle argent.[2]

Balliol College /ˈbeɪliəl/, founded in 1263,[3] is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England.

Among the college's alumni are three former prime ministers (H. H. Asquith, who once described Balliol men as possessing "the tranquil consciousness of an effortless superiority", Harold Macmillan, and Edward Heath), five Nobel laureates, and a number of literary figures and philosophers. Political economist Adam Smith is perhaps the best known alumnus of the college.

In 2012 Balliol had an endowment of £62.5m.[4]

Contents

1 History
1.1 Traditions and customs
1.2 The Masque of Balliol
1.3 Balliol–Trinity rivalry
2 Buildings and grounds
2.1 Front quadrangle
2.2 Garden Quadrangle
2.3 Manor Road and Jowett Walk
3 Academia
4 Student life
5 People associated with Balliol
5.1 Notable people
5.2 Academics and Fellows
5.3 Masters
6 References
7 External links

History

Balliol College was founded in about 1263 by John I de Balliol under the guidance of the Bishop of Durham. After his death in 1268, his widow, Dervorguilla of Galloway (their son and grandson both became Kings of Scotland), made arrangements to ensure the permanence of the college in that she provided capital and in 1282 formulated the college statutes, documents that survive to this day.

Under a statute of 1881, New Inn Hall was merged into Balliol College in 1887.[5] Balliol acquired New Inn Hall's admissions and other records for 1831–1887[6] as well as the library of New Inn Hall, which largely contained 18th-century law books.[5]
Traditions and customs
The front of the college in Broad Street.
Balliol College Garden

Along with many of the ancient colleges, Balliol has evolved its own traditions and customs over the centuries, many of which occupy a regular calendar slot.

The patron saint of the College is Saint Catherine of Alexandria. On her feast day (25 November), a formal dinner is held for all final year students within Balliol. This festival was well established by 1550. Another important feast is the Snell Dinner. This dinner is held in memory of John Snell, whose benefaction established exhibitions for students from the University of Glasgow to study at Balliol (the first exhibitioners were matriculated in 1699) one of whom was Adam Smith. The feast is attended by fellows of Balliol College, the current Snell Exhibitioners, and representatives from Glasgow University and St John's College, Cambridge.

By far the most eccentric event is The Nepotists carol-singing event organised by the College's Arnold and Brackenbury Society. This event happens on the last Friday of Michaelmas term each year. On this occasion, Balliol students congregate in the college hall to enjoy mulled wine and the singing of carols. The evening historically ended with a rendition of "The Gordouli" (see Balliol–Trinity rivalry below) on Broad Street, outside the gates of Trinity College, although in recent years the song has been sung from within the college walls.
The Masque of Balliol

In 1880, seven mischievous Balliol undergraduates published The Masque of B-ll--l, a broadsheet of forty quatrains making light of their superiors – the Master and selected Fellows, Scholars, and Commoners – and themselves. The outraged authorities immediately suppressed the collection, and only a few copies survived, three of which found their way into the College Library over the years, and one into the Bodleian Library. Verses of this form are now known as Balliol rhymes.

The best known of these rhymes is the one on Benjamin Jowett. This has been widely quoted and reprinted in virtually every book about Jowett and about Balliol ever since.

First come I.

My name is J-W-TT.
There's no knowledge but I know it.
I am Master of this College,
What I don't know isn't knowledge.

This and 18 others are attributed to Henry Charles Beeching. The other quatrains are much less well known.

William Tuckwell included 18 of these quatrains in his Reminiscences in 1900, but they all came out only in 1939, thanks to Walter George Hiscock, an Oxford librarian, who issued them personally then and in a second edition in 1955.[7]
Balliol–Trinity rivalry
The whole of the front of Balliol College as seen from Broad Street, looking west.

For many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Balliol and those of its immediate neighbour to the east, Trinity College.[8] It has manifested itself on the sports field and the river; in the form of songs (of greater or less offensiveness) sung over the dividing walls; and in the form of "raids" on the other college. The rivalry reflects that which also exists between Trinity College, Cambridge and Balliol's sister college, St John's College, Cambridge.

In college folklore, the rivalry goes back to the late 17th century, when Ralph Bathurst, President o>>118627923

Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates, 300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, it is the largest college in either of the Oxbridge universities by number of undergraduates. By combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge.[1]

Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes[2] out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, the highest number of any college. Five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college (of the six awarded to members of British universities) and one Abel Prize was won.

Trinity alumni include six British prime ministers (all Tory or Whig/Liberal), physicists Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr, the poet Lord Byron, philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell (whom it expelled before reaccepting), and Soviet spies Kim Philby, Guy Burgess, and Anthony Blunt.

Two members of the British Royal Family have studied at Trinity and been awarded degrees as a result: Prince William of Gloucester and Edinburgh, who gained an MA in 1790, and Prince Charles, who was awarded a lower second class BA in 1970. Other British Royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester.

Trinity has many college societies, including the Trinity Mathematical Society, which is the oldest mathematical university society in the United Kingdom, and the First and Third Trinity Boat Club, its rowing club, which gives its name to the college's May Ball. Along with Christ's, Jesus, King's and St John's colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society.

In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, known as the Cambridge Rules.[3]

Trinity's sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the school's re-foundation in 1560, and its Master is an ex officio governor of the school.[4]

Contents

1 History
1.1 Foundation
1.2 Nevile's expansion
1.3 Modern day
1.4 Legends
1.5 Trinity in Camberwell
2 Buildings and grounds
2.1 Great Gate
2.2 Great Court
2.3 Nevile's Court
2.4 New Court
2.5 Other courts
2.6 Chapel
2.7 Grounds
2.8 Gallery
3 Academic profile
3.1 Admissions
3.2 Scholarships and prizes
4 Traditions
4.1 The Great Court Run
4.2 Open-air concerts
4.3 Mallard
4.4 Chair legs and bicycles
4.5 College rivalry
4.6 Minor traditions
4.7 College Grace
5 People associated with the college
5.1 Notable fellows and alumni
5.2 Nobel Prize winners
5.3 Fields Medallists
5.4 British Prime Ministers
5.5 Masters
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links

History
1575 map showing the King's Hall (top left) and Michaelhouse (top right) buildings before Nevile's reconstruction
Foundation

The college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges: Michaelhouse (founded by Hervey de Stanton in 1324), and King's Hall (established by Edward II in 1317 and refounded by Edward III in 1337). At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys and monasteries. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to suppress (and confiscate the property of) any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, Catherine Parr. The Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he instead combined two colleges (King's Hall and Michaelhouse) and seven hostels (Physwick (formerly part of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge), Gregory's, Ovyng's, Catherine's, Garratt, Margaret's, and Tyler's) to form Trinity.

ontrary to popular belief, the monastic lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinity's eventual rise. In terms of architecture and royal association, it was not until the Mastership of Thomas Nevile (1593–1615) that Trinity assumed both its spaciousness and its courtly association with the governing class that distinguished it until the Civil War. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its neighbouring college of St John's: in the exaggerated words of Roger Ascham Trinity was little more than a colonia deducta[clarification needed].[5] Its first four Masters were educated at St John's, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges' application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. In terms of wealth, Trinity's current fortunes belie prior fluctuations; Nevile's building campaign drove the college into debt from which it only surfaced in the 1640s, and the Mastership of Richard Bentley adversely affected applications and finances.[5] Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Master's Lodge, and for his repeated refusals to step down despite pleas from the Fellows.

Most of the Trinity's major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and redesigned much of the college. This work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Nevile's Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Nevile's Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, was built.
Modern day
Trinity established Cambridge Science Park, UK's first science park, in 1970

In the 20th century, Trinity College, St John's College and King's College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society.

In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity College's Master, the astrophysicist Martin Rees, its controversial million-pound[6] Templeton Prize, for "affirming life's spiritual dimension".

Since graduating from Trinity, HRH The Prince of Wales has retained a private apartment in usufruct at the back of the college. The apartment is maintained for private and informal visits. On a recent visit, his sons William (latterly HRH The Duke of Cambridge) and Harry both visited during their motorcycle tour of the UK.

Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college,[7] with a landholding alone worth £800 million. [8] Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK (or in England) — after the Crown Estate, the National Trust and the Church of England. (A variant of this legend is repeated in the Tom Sharpe novel Porterhouse Blue.) In 2005, Trinity's annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million.

Trinity owns:

3400 acres (14 km2) housing facilities at the Port of Felixstowe, Britain's busiest container port
the Cambridge Science Park[9]
the O2 Arena in London (formerly the Millennium Dome)[10]
a 50% stake in a portfolio of Tesco supermarket stores, worth £440 million[8]

Legends

Lord Byron purportedly kept a pet bear whilst living in the college.[11]

A second legend is that it is possible to walk from Cambridge to Oxford on land solely owned by Trinity. Several varieties of this legend exist – others refer to the combined land of Trinity College, Cambridge and Trinity College, Oxford, of Trinity College, Cambridge and Christ Church, Oxford, or St John's College, Oxford and St John's College, Cambridge. All are almost certainly false.

Trinity is often cited as the inventor of an English, less sweet, version of crème brûlée, known as "Trinity burnt cream",[12] although the college chefs have sometimes been known to refer to it as "Trinity Creme Brulee".[13] The burnt-cream, first introduced at Trinity High Table in 1879, in fact differs quite markedly from French recipes, the earliest of which is from 1691.
Trinity in Camberwell

Trinity College has a long-standing relationship with the Parish of St George's, Camberwell,[14] in South London. Students from the College have helped to run holiday schemes for children from the parish since 1966. The relationship was formalised in 1979 with the establishment of Trinity in Camberwell as a registered charity (Charity Commission no. 279447)[15] which exists ‘to provide, promote, assist and encourage the advancement of education and relief of need and other charitable objects for the benefit of the community in the Parish of St George's, Camberwell, and the neighbourhood thereof.’
Buildings and grounds
A historical plan of the development of Trinity College by 1897.
Great Gate

The Great Gate is the main entrance to the college, leading to the Great Court. A statue of the college founder, Henry VIII, stands in a niche above the doorway. In his hand he holds a table leg instead of the original sword and myths abound as to how the switch was carried out and by whom. In 1704, the University's first astronomical observatory was built on top of the gatehouse. Beneath the founder's statue are the coats of arms of Edward III, the founder of King's Hall, and those of his five sons who survived to maturity, as well as William of Hatfield, whose shield is blank as he died as an infant, before being granted arms. [16]
Great Court

Great Court (built principally 1599–1608) was the brainchild of Thomas Nevile, who demolished several existing buildings on this site, including almost the entirety of the former college of Michaelhouse. The sole remaining building of Michaelhouse was replaced by the then current Kitchens (designed by James Essex) in 1770–1775. The Master's Lodge is the official residence of the Sovereign when in Cambridge.[citation needed]

King's Hostel (built 1377–1416) is located to the north of Great Court, behind the Clock Tower, this is (along with the King's Gate), the sole remaining building from King's Hall.

Bishop's Hostel (built 1671, Robert Minchin): A detached building to the southwest of Great Court, and named after John Hacket, Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. Additional buildings were built in 1878 by Arthur Blomfield.
Nevile's Court
The Wren Library at Nevile's Court

Nevile's Court (built 1614) is located between Great Court and the river, this court was created by a bequest by the college's master, Thomas Nevile, originally two-thirds of its current length and without the Wren Library. The appearance of the upper floor was remodelled slightly two centuries later. Cloisters run around the court, providing sheltered walkways from the rear of Great Hall to the college library and reading room as well as the Wren Library and New Court.
Wren Library interior, showing the limewood carvings by Grinling Gibbons

Wren Library (built 1676–1695, Christopher Wren) is located at the west end of Nevile's Court, the Wren is one of Cambridge's most famous and well-endowed libraries. Among its notable possessions are two of Shakespeare's First Folios, a 14th-century manuscript of The Vision of Piers Plowman, and letters written by Sir Isaac Newton. The Eadwine Psalter belongs to Trinity but is kept by Cambridge University Library. Below the building are the pleasant Wren Library Cloisters, where students may enjoy a fine view of the Great Hall in front of them, and the river and Backs directly behind.
New Court

New Court (or King's Court; built 1825, William Wilkins) is located to the south of Nevile's Court, and built in Tudor-Gothic style, this court is notable for the large tree in the centre. A myth is sometimes circulated that this was the tree from which the apple dropped onto Isaac Newton; in fact, Newton was at Woolsthorpe when he deduced his theory of gravity – and the tree is a chestnut tree.[17] Many other "New Courts" in the colleges were built at this time to accommodate the new influx of students.
Other courts
Whewell's Court north range

Whewell's Court (actually two courts with a third in between, built 1860 & 1868, architect Anthony Salvin)[18] is located across the street from Great Court, and was entirely paid for by William Whewell, the Master of the college from 1841 until his death in 1866. The north range was later remodelled by W.D. Caroe.

Angel Court (built 1957–1959, H. C. Husband) is located between Great Court and Trinity Street, and is used along with the Wolfson Building for accommodating first year students.

The Wolfson Building (built 1968–1972, Architects Co-Partnership) is located to the south of Whewell's Court, on top of a podium above shops, this building resembles a brick-clad ziggurat, and is used exclusively for first-year accommodation. Having been renovated during the academic year 2005–06, rooms are now almost all en-suite.

Blue Boar Court (built 1989, MJP Architects and Wright) is located to the south of the Wolfson Building, on top of >>118627923

>>118628139
Срать учись, глупая скобка.

Piers Plowman (written c. 1370–90) or Visio Willelmi de Petro Ploughman (William's Vision of Piers Plowman) is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem by William Langland. It is written in unrhymed alliterative verse divided into sections called "passus" (Latin for "step"). Piers is considered by many critics to be one of the greatest works of English literature of the Middle Ages, along with Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and the Pearl Poet's Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Piers Plowman contains the first known allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales.

Contents

1 Summary
1.1 Vision 1
1.2 Vision 2
1.3 Vision 3
1.4 Vision 4
1.5 Vision 5
1.6 Vision 6
1.7 Vision 7
1.8 Vision 8
2 Title and authorship
3 The text
4 Editorial, publication and reception history
4.1 14th–15th centuries
4.2 16th–18th centuries
4.3 19th–20th centuries
5 Related texts
6 Editions
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Summary

The poem—part theological allegory, part social satire—concerns the narrator's intense quest for the true Christian life, from the perspective of medieval Catholicism. This quest entails a series of dream-visions and an examination into the lives of three allegorical characters, Dowel ("Do-Well"), Dobet ("Do-Better"), and Dobest ("Do-Best"). The following summary is based on the B-version of the poem--the most widely edited and translated.

The poem is divided into passus ('steps').
Vision 1

Prologue: The poem begins in the Malvern Hills between Worcestershire and Herefordshire. A man named Will (which can be understood simply as a personal name or as an allegory for a person's will, in the sense of 'desire, intention') falls asleep and has a vision of a tower set upon a hill and a fortress (donjon) in a deep valley; between these symbols of heaven and hell is a 'fair field full of folk', representing the world of mankind. A satirical account of different sections of society follows, along with a dream-like fable representing the King as a cat and his people as rodents.

Passus 1: Holy Church visits Will and explains the tower of Truth, and discusses Truth more generally.

Passus 2: Will sees Lady Mede ('payment') and finds out about her planned marriage to False.

Passus 3: Lady Mede travels to the royal court; the King proposes she marry Conscience; but Conscience denounces her.

Passus 4: Conscience and Reason convince the King not to marry Mede to False. Will wakes up.
Vision 2

Passus 5: Will falls back to sleep. Reason gives a sermon to the Field of Folk and the people decide to repent. The Seven Deadly Sins make confession and in penance attempt to go on pilgrimage to St Truth. They get lost, and Piers Plowman makes his first appearance: he will help the penitents if they help him plough his half-acre.

Passus 6: Piers and the penitents plough the half-acre. Some people refuse to work, and Hunger punishes them until they work. But once Hunger has been sated, the people return to idleness.

Passus 7: Eventually, Truth sends Piers a pardon for the penitents' sins; its main content is 'Do well and have well and God shall have your soul' and 'Do evil and have evil, and expect nothing other than that after your death, the Devil shall have your soul'. When challenged on the pardon's validity by a priest, Piers angrily tears it in two. Will is awakened by their arguing and, musing on his dreams, decides to seek ‘Do-wel’.

The A-version of Piers Plowman stops at this point.
Vision 3

Passus 8: Will's search for Dowel begins. He enters into a disputation with Friars. He then falls asleep once more and meets Thought. Thought instructs Will in 'Do well, do better, do best'. Practical interpretation of what these concepts mean is to be provided by Wit.

Passus 9: There is an extended allegory featuring Dowel and the Castle of Flesh, exposing the need for people to be governed by their ‘Inwit’. The text discusses poverty and marriage. Wit makes further inroads to understanding Dowel, as active virtue.

Passus 10: We meet Wit’s wife, Dame Study. She complains to Will about his ignorance. Will then proceeds to Clergy and Scripture to learn more about Dowel. He considers what use scholarship might have in helping him achieve salvation.

Passus 11: Scripture complains about Will's lack of self-knowledge. Angered, Will (who is already dreaming) goes to sleep and has a dream-within-a-dream in which he meets Fortune. He serves her into old age, but she abandons him. Will learns about the salvation of the Emperor Trajan and power of love. Kynde ('character, natural disposition, nature', here understood as an aspect of God) shows Will the world. Will has an argument with Reason: Reason, Will concludes, does not do enough to keep people from sin; but Reason disagrees. Will awakes from the dream-within-a-dream. He now meets Imaginatif, who advises Will to be patient.

Passus 12: Imaginatif teaches Will, bringing together and improving his understanding of earlier discussions in the poem. Imaginatif emphasises the need for humility and the importance of Grace.
Vision 4

Passus 13: Will awakens and then falls back to sleep; he dreams of sharing a feast with Conscience, Scripture, Clergy and Patience; he encounters a greedy Doctor of Divinity (who later shows disdain for love) and as well as eating actual food also dines on spiritual food. Piers the Plowman offers a definition of Do Well, Do Better and Do Best. Then Conscience and Patience meet Haukyn the Active Man, who wears a coat of Christian faith which is, however, soiled with the Seven Deadly Sins.

Passus 14: Conscience teaches Haukyn to seek forgiveness and do penance; Patience teaches Haukyn about the merits of embracing poverty. Haukyn cries out for God's mercy, which awakens Will.
Vision 5

>>118627986
Единственно правильного нет.
Зато есть то, что слышали об этом школьники, и то, что они думают.
Они сделали это место таким, каким его видели.
И те, кто здесь жил до них, им просто стало тут не место. Как-то так.

>>118628401
Passus 15: Will finds himself alienated from the waking world, but Reason helps him to go back to sleep, whereupon Will meets Anima ('spirit'). Anima tells Will off for his pride in wanting to know too much, but goes on to talk about charity, in particular how the Church should care for its flock, but how its priests and monks (among whom Langland counts the Prophet Mohammed) do not always fulfil this duty. Talking to Anima, Will starts to conclude that Piers the Plowman is Christ. Will realises that he needs to switch from searching for Dowel to searching for Charity.

Passus 16: Will falls into another dream-within-a-dream, this time about the Tree of Charity, whose gardener is Piers the Plowman. Will participates in a re-enactment of the Fall of Man and then has a vision of the life of Christ; when this reaches the point where the Devil is defeated, Will wakes up from the dream-within-a-dream. Will goes looking for Piers and meeting Faith/Abraham, who is himself searching for Christ.

Passus 17: Next, Will meets Hope/Moses, characterised by the tablets of law, who is also in search of Christ. Will learns about the Good Samaritan, the prospect of salvation, and the importance of Love. He wakes up.
Vision 6

Passus 18: Will sleeps again, and experiences the climactic section of Piers Plowman. He experiences Love and the intersection of human and divine time. Will witnesses Christ/the Good Samaritan/Piers Plowman riding into Jerusalem and Christ's crucifixion. He then witnesses the Four Daughters of God (Truth, Justice, Mercy, Peace) in debate; the Harrowing of Hell; and Redemption.

Will wakes again, and now exhorts his family to attend mass.
Vision 7

Passus 19: During the mass, Will falls back to sleep and meets Conscience once more. Conscience recounts the life and Passion of Christ and how Piers/Peter was given his power by Grace/Christ. Will finds out about Pentecost; once more sees Piers as a ploughman; and witnesses Pride attacking Unity/Holy Church. He wakes up and records his dream.
Vision 8

Passus 20: While awake, Will meets Need. He falls asleep again and now dreams of the Antichrist. Kynde sends Old Age, Death, and Pestilence, to chastise people: Will is attacked by Old Age. He witnesses Holy Church undermined by a hypocritical Friar. Conscience goes on pilgrimage to seek Piers the Plowman, and calls on Grace for help--whereupon Will wakes up.

Version C has a further two passus.
Title and authorship

It is now commonly accepted that Piers Plowman was written by William Langland, about whom little is known. This attribution rests principally on the evidence of an early-fifteenth-century manuscript of the C-text (see below) of Piers held at Trinity College, Dublin (MS 212), which ascribes the work to one man, called 'Willielmus de Langlond':

Memorandum quod Stacy de Rokayle pater willielmi de Langlond qui stacius fuit generosus & morabatur in Schiptoun vnder whicwode tenens domini le Spenser in comitatu Oxoniensi qui predictus willielmus fecit librum qui vocatur Perys ploughman.

Translation

It should be noted that Stacy de Rokayle was the father of William de Langlond; this Stacy was of noble birth and dwelt in Shipton-under-Wychwood, a tenant of the Lord Spenser in the county of Oxfordshire. The aforesaid William made the book which is called Piers Plowman.

Other manuscripts also name the author as "Robert or William Langland", or "Wilhelmus W." (which could be shorthand for "William of Wychwood").

The attribution to William Langland is also based on internal evidence, primarily a seemingly autobiographical section in Passus 5 of the C-text of the poem. The main narrator of the poem in all the versions is named Will, with allegorical resonances clearly intended, and Langland (or Longland) is thought to be indicated as a surname through apparent puns; e.g., at one point the narrator remarks: "I have lyved in londe... my name is longe wille" (B.XV.152). This could be a coded reference to the poet's name, in the style of much late-medieval literature. Langland's authorship, however, is not entirely beyond dispute, as recent work by Stella Pates and C. David Benson has demonstrated.[citation needed]

In the sixteenth century, when Piers was first printed, authorship was attributed by various antiquarians (such as John Bale) and poets to John Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer, amongst others. Some sixteenth and seventeenth-century persons regarded the poem as anonymous, and/or associated it with texts in the plowman tradition of social complaint, particularly the Chaucerian pseudepigrapha The Ploughman's Tale and Pierce the Ploughman's Crede. (The latter was appended to Owen Rogers' 1560 edition of Piers Plowman, a degraded version of Robert Crowley's 1550 editions.) The character of Piers himself had come to be considered by many readers to be in some sense the author.

The first printed editions by Crowley named the author as "Robert Langland" in a prefatory note. Langland is described as a probable protégé of Wycliffe. With Crowley's editions, the poem followed an existing and subsequently repeated convention of titling the poem The Vision of Piers [or Pierce] Plowman, which is in fact the conventional name of just one section of the poem.

Some medievalists and text critics, beginning with John Matthews Manly, have posited multiple authorship theories for Piers, an idea which continues to have a periodic resurgence in the scholarly literature. One scholar[who?] now disputes the single-author hypothesis, supposing that the poem may be the work of 2–5 authors, depending upon how authorship is defined. In keeping with contemporary scholarly trends in textual criticism, critical theory, and the history of the book, Charlotte Brewer, among others, suggests that scribes and their supervisors be regarded as editors with semi-authorial roles in the production of Piers Plowman and other early modern texts, but this has nothing to do with Manly's argument.
The text
First edition manuscript of the front page
Piers Ploughman from a 14th century manuscript

Piers Plowman is considered to be one of the most analytically challenging texts in Middle English textual criticism. There are 50–56 surviving manuscripts, some of which are fragmentary. None of the texts are known to be in the author's own hand, and none of them derive directly from any of the others.

All modern discussion of the text revolves around the classifications of W. W. Skeat. Skeat argued that there are as many as ten forms of the poem, but only three are to be considered authoritative—the A, B,[1] and C-texts—although the definition of "authoritative" in this context is problematic. According to the three-version hypothesis, each version represents different manuscript traditions deriving from three distinct and successive stages of authorial revision. Although precise dating is debated, the A, B, and C texts are now commonly thought of as the progressive (20–25 years) work of a single author.

According to the three versions hypothesis, the A-text was written c. 1367–70 and is the earliest. It breaks off, apparently unfinished, at Book 11, and Book 12 is written by another author or interpolator. The poem runs to about 2,500 lines. The B-text (Warner's ur-B text) was written c. 1377–79; it revises A, adds new material, and is three times the length of A. It runs to about 7,300 lines. The C-text was written in the 1380s as a major revision of B except for the final sections. There is some debate over whether the poem can be regarded as finished or not. It entails additions, omissions, and transpositions; it is not significantly different in size from B. Some scholars see it as a conservative revision of B that aims at disassociating the poem from Lollardy and the religious and political radicalism of John Ball during the Great Rising of 1381. (Ball appropriated Piers and other characters in the poem for his own verses, speeches, and letters during the Rising.) There is little actual evidence for this proposal, and much against it.[citation needed]

Skeat believed that the A-text was incomplete and based his editions on a B-text manuscript (Oxford, MS. Laud Misc. 581) that he wrongly thought was probably a holograph. Modern editors following Skeat, such as George Kane and E. Talbot Donaldson, have maintained the basic tenets of Skeat's work: there were three final authorial texts, now lost, that can be reconstructed, albeit imperfectly and without certainty, by rooting out the "corruption" and "damage" done by scribes.
ogical and sociopolitical content—as distinct from the aesthetic or literary—in a dichotomy common to all modern humanistic studies.
Related texts

>>118628401
Main article: Piers Plowman tradition

Many subsequent texts – at least 14 – use characters from Piers Plowman, most often Piers himself. Many more texts were written with similar themes and characters, though not directly borrowing from Piers Plowman, until around the end of the 16th century. Conversely, Piers Plowman was preceded by and contemporary with a number of similar works in the 14th and 15th centuries. Together, these are referred to as the "Piers Plowman tradition".
Editions

Economou, George (tr), William Langland's Piers Plowman: The C version (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996).
Kane, George, gen. ed. Piers Plowman: The A Version (Kane, ed.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The B Version (Kane and Donaldson, eds.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The C Version (George Russell and Kane, eds.; London: Athlone, 1997).
Pearsall, Derek, ed. William Langland. Piers Plowman: A New Annotated Edition of the C-Text (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2008) (Exeter Medieval Texts and Studies).
Schmidt, A. V. C., Piers Plowman: A Parallel-Text Edition of the A, B, C, and Z Versions (3 vols.; Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 2011).
Vaughan, Míċeál F., Piers Plowman: The A Version (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011).

See also

Allegory in the Middle Ages

References

Facsimile of original B- text

Further reading

Benson, C. D. Public Piers Plowman: Modern Scholarship and Late Medieval English Culture (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).
Bowers, J. M. Chaucer and Langland: The Antagonistic Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007).
Brewer, C. Editing Piers Plowman: The Evolution of the Text (Cambridge, CUP, 1996) (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 28).
Cole, A. (1995). "Trifunctionality and the Tree of Charity: Literary and Social Practice in Piers Plowman". English Literary History 62: 1–27. doi:10.1353/elh.1995.0003.
Cole, Andrew; Galloway, Andrew (2014). The Cambridge Companion to Piers Plowman. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1139867326.
Kelen, S. A. Langland's Early Modern Identities (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Kerby-Fulton, Kathryn (2006). Books Under Suspicion: Censorship and Tolerance of Revelatory Writing in Late Medieval England. University of Notre Dame Press.
Steiner, Emily (2013). Reading Piers Plowman. Cambridge University Press.
Warner, L. (2011). The Lost History of Piers Plowman: The Earliest Transmission of Langland's Work. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Watson, Nicholas (2007). "Piers Plowman, Pastoral Theology, and Spiritual Perfectionism: Hawkyn's Cloak and Patience's Pater Noster". Yearbook of Langland Studies vol. 21: 83-118.

External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Piers Plowman
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Piers Plowman

International Piers Plowman Society Website of international scholarly organization for the study of Piers Plowman and other alliterative poems; includes searchable database of annotations of all scholarship on these poems since 1986. The Society also publishes The Yearbook of Langland Studies, which offers access to the most significant and up-to-date scholarship on the poem and its literary, historical, codicological and critical contexts.
Piers Plowman Electronic Archive A multi-level, hyper-textually linked electronic archive of the textual tradition of all three versions of the fourteenth-century allegorical dream vision Piers Plowman.
Corpus of Middle English Verse and Prose e-text of Piers Plowman.
Project Gutenberg Consortia Center ebook of Piers Plowman.
William Langland page at Harvard. With link to modern English text of Piers.
Piers Plowman and the Rising of 1381.
Piers Plowman and Its Sequence by John Matthews Manly, vol. 2, The End of the Middle Ages," in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, 18 vols., Edited by A. W. Ward & A. R. Waller, (1907–21).

[hide]

v t e

Robin Hood
Characters

Robin Hood Maid Marian Merry Men Much the Miller's Son Little John Friar Tuck Alan-a-Dale Will Scarlet Will Stutely Gilbert Whitehand Arthur a Bland David of Doncaster The Jolly Pinder of Wakefield Sheriff of Nottingham Guy of Gisbourne Prince John Bishop of Hereford Richard at the Lee King Richard

Settings

Sherwood Forest Nottingham Loxley Barnsdale Wentbridge

Screen
Film


Robin Hood (1912) Robin Hood (1922) The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) Son of the Guardsman (1946) The Prince of Thieves (1948) The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952) The Men of Sherwood Forest (1954) Sword of Sherwood Forest (1960) A Challenge for Robin Hood (1967) The Scalawag Bunch (1971) Wolfshead: The Legend of Robin Hood (1973) The Arrows of Robin Hood (1975) Robin and Marian (1976) Aaj Ka Robin Hood (1988) O Mistério de Robin Hood (1990) Robin Hood (1991) Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) Robin Hood (2010)

TV


Robin Hood (1953) The Adventures of Robin Hood (1955) The Legend of Robin Hood (1975) Robin of Sherwood (1984) Robin Hood no Daibōken (1990) The New Adventures of Robin Hood (1997) Robi

>>118628401
Вот иди на хуй отсюда. Это не твоя борда, мразь.

>>118628061
Ага.
Раньше хоть Протопопвым обмазывались. А теперь этим вот.

>>118628401
Main article: Piers Plowman tradition

Many subsequent texts – at least 14 – use characters from Piers Plowman, most often Piers himself. Many more texts were written with similar themes and characters, though not directly borrowing from Piers Plowman, until around the end of the 16th century. Conversely, Piers Plowman was preceded by and contemporary with a number of similar works in the 14th and 15th centuries. Together, these are referred to as the "Piers Plowman tradition".
Editions

Economou, George (tr), William Langland's Piers Plowman: The C version (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996).
Kane, George, gen. ed. Piers Plowman: The A Version (Kane, ed.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The B Version (Kane and Donaldson, eds.; rev. ed. London: Athlone, 1988); Piers Plowman: The C Version (George Russell and Kane, eds.; London: Athlone, 1997).
Pearsall, Derek, ed. William Langland. Piers Plowman: A New Annotated Edition of the C-Text (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2008) (Exeter Medieval Texts and Studies).
Schmidt, A. V. C., Piers Plowman: A Parallel-Text Edition of the A, B, C, and Z Versions (3 vols.; Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 2011).
Vaughan, Míċeál F., Piers Plowman: The A Version (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011).

See also

Allegory in the Middle Ages

References

Facsimile of original B- text

Further reading

Benson, C. D. Public Piers Plowman: Modern Scholarship and Late Medieval English Culture (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).
Bowers, J. M. Chaucer and Langland: The Antagonistic Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007).
Brewer, C. Editing Piers Plowman: The Evolution of the Text (Cambridge, CUP, 1996) (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 28).
Cole, A. (1995). "Trifunctionality and the Tree of Charity: Literary and Social Practice in Piers Plowman". English Literary History 62: 1–27. doi:10.1353/elh.1995.0003.
Cole, Andrew; Galloway, Andrew (2014). The Cambridge Companion to Piers Plowman. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1139867326.
Kelen, S. A. Langland's Early Modern Identities (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Kerby-Fulton, Kathryn (2006). Books Under Suspicion: Censorship and Tolerance of Revelatory Writing in Late Medieval England. University of Notre Dame Press.
Steiner, Emily (2013). Reading Piers Plowman. Cambridge University Press.
Warner, L. (2011). The Lost History of Piers Plowman: The Earliest Transmission of Langland's Work. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Watson, Nicholas (2007). "Piers Plowman, Pastoral Theology, and Spiritual Perfectionism: Hawkyn's Cloak and Patience's Pater Noster". Yearbook of Langland Studies vol. 21: 83-118.

External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Piers Plowman
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Piers Plowman

International Piers Plowman Society Website of international scholarly organization for the study of Piers Plowman and other alliterative poems; includes searchable database of annotations of all scholarship on these poems since 1986. The Society also publishes The Yearbook of Langland Studies, which offers access to the most significant and up-to-date scholarship on the poem and its literary, historical, codicological and critical contexts.
Piers Plowman Electronic Archive A multi-level, hyper-textually linked electronic archive of the textual tradition of all three versions of the fourteenth-century allegorical dream vision Piers Plowman.
Corpus of Middle English Verse and Prose e-text of Piers Plowman.
Project Gutenberg Consortia Center ebook of Piers Plowman.
William Langland page at Harvard. With link to modern English text of Piers.
Piers Plowman and the Rising of 1381.
Piers Plowman and Its Sequence by John Matthews Manly, vol. 2, The End of the Middle Ages," in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, 18 vols., Edited by A. W. Ward & A. R. Waller, (1907–21).

[hide]

v t e

Robin Hood
Characters

Robin Hood Maid Marian Merry Men Much the Miller's Son Little John Friar Tuck Alan-a-Dale Will Scarlet Will Stutely Gilbert Whitehand Arthur a Bland David of Doncaster The Jolly Pinder of Wakefield Sheriff of Nottingham Guy of Gisbourne Prince John Bishop of Hereford Richard at the Lee King Richard

Settings

Sherwood Forest Nottingham Loxley Barnsdale Wentbridge

Screen
Film


Robin Hood (1912) Robin Hood (1922) The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) Son of the Guardsman (1946) The Prince of Thieves (1948) The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952) The Men of Sherwood Forest (1954) Sword of Sherwood Forest (1960) A Challenge for Robin Hood (1967) The Scalawag Bunch (1971) Wolfshead: The Legend of Robin Hood (1973) The Arrows of Robin Hood (1975) Robin and Marian (1976) Aaj Ka Robin Hood (1988) O Mistério de Robin Hood (1990) Robin Hood (1991) Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) Robin Hood (2010)

TV


Robin Hood (1953) The Adventures of Robin Hood (1955) The Legend of Robin Hoчod (1975) Robin of Sherwood (1984) Robin Hood no Daibōken (1990) The New Adventures of Robin Hood (1997) Robi

Leesome Brand
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Child's Ballads/15

Leesome Brand is Child Ballad number 15[1] and Roud #3301.
Synopsis

Leesome Brand went to court when ten years old. An eleven-year-old girl fell in love with him, but nine months later, called on him to saddle horses, take her dowry, and flee with her. They headed to his mother's house, but she went into labour on the way. He went off to hunt, but violated a prohibition she laid on him, either not to hunt a milk-white hind, or to come running when called, and she and his son died. He went home and lamented this to his mother.

Some variants stop there. In others, the mother gave him a horn with ointment that restored them both to life.
Variants

Francis James Child described this ballad as particularly ill-preserved in its Scottish form, requiring consulting foreign variants even to be sure of the plot.[2] One of its variants was so corrupted as to be barely distinguishable from "Sheath and Knife", Child Ballad 16, which laments a death in the same language.[3]

The foreign variants of this ballad include Scandinavian, German, and French forms.[4]

The heroine's difficulty riding, because of her advanced pregnancy, also features in some Scandavian variants of "Gil Brenton".[5]

"Willie o Douglas Dale" and "Willie and Earl Richard's Daughter" include similar flights, of the lovers, with the woman being pregnant and giving birth in the woods, although with altered endings.[6]
References

Francis James Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, "Leesome Brand"
Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 1, p 177, Dover Publications, New York 1965
Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 1, p 178, Dover Publications, New York 1965
Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 1, p 179-81, Dover Publications, New York 1965
Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 1, p 66, Dover Publications, New York 1965
Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 2, p 412, Dover Publications, New York 1965

>>118628381
Я сру, как богиня.

Roud Folk Song Index
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Roud" redirects here. For other uses, see Roud (disambiguation).
"Roud number" redirects here. For a list of songs with Roud numbers, see List of folk songs by Roud number.

The Roud Folk Song Index is a database of nearly 200,000 references to nearly 25,000 songs that have been collected from oral tradition in the English language from all over the world. It is compiled by Steve Roud, a former librarian in the London Borough of Croydon.[1] Roud's Index is a combination of the Broadside Index (printed sources before 1900) and a "field-recording index" compiled by Roud. It subsumes all the previous well-known printed sources known to Francis James Child (the Child Ballads) and includes recordings from 1900 to 1975. Until early 2006 the index was available only by a CD subscription; it can now be found online on a website maintained by the English Folk Dance and Song Society.[2] A partial list is also available at List of folk songs by Roud number.

Contents

1 Function of index
2 Numbering scheme and cross references
3 Compiler
4 Similar collections
5 References

Function of index

The primary function of the Roud Folk Song Index is to act as a research aid which correlates versions of traditional folk song lyrics that have been independently documented over past centuries by many different collectors across both the UK and North America. It is possible by searching the database, for example by title, by first line(s), or subject matter (or a combination of any of a dozen fields) to locate each of the often numerous variants of a particular song. Comprehensive details of those songs are then available, including details of the original collected source, and a reference to where to find the text (and possibly music) of the song within a published volume in the EFDSS archive.

A related index, known as the "Roud Broadside Index", includes references to songs which appeared on broadsides and other cheap print publications, up to about 1920. In addition, there are many entries for music hall songs, pre-World War II radio performers’ song folios, sheet music, etc. The index may be searched by title, first line etc. and the result includes details of the original imprint and where a copy may be located. The "Roud num" field may be used as a cross-reference to the Roud Folk Song Index itself in order to establish the traditional origin of the work.

The database is recognised as a "significant index" by the EFDSS[3] and was one of the first items to be published on its web site after the launch of the online version of the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library in 2006.
Numbering scheme and cross references

The purpose of the index is to give each song a unique identifying number. The numbers were assigned on a more or less arbitrary basis, and are not intended to carry any significance in themselves. However, because of the practicalities of compiling the index (building on previously published sources) it is true as a general rule that older and better-known songs tend to occupy low numbers, while songs which are obscure have higher numbers.

Closely related songs are grouped under the same Roud number.

If a trusted authority gives the name of a song but not the words it is assigned Roud number 000.

The Index cross references to the Child Ballad number, if one is available for the particular song in question. It also includes, where appropriate, the so-called Laws number, a reference to a system of codification of folk songs using one letter of the alphabet and up to two numeric digits, developed by George Malcolm Laws in the 1950s.
Compiler

Steve Roud was formerly the Local Studies Librarian in the London Borough of Croydon. He was also Honorary Librarian of the Folklore Society. He is the co-author (with Jacqueline Simpson) of A Dictionary of English Folklore (2005). Starting in 1993 he input various fields to a database, listing the source singer (if known), their locality, the date of noting the song, the publisher (book or recorded source), plus other fields. In the past few years the numbers have been widely accepted in academic circles.[citation needed]

In 2009, Steve Roud was one of five people to be awarded the Gold Badge of the English Folk Dance and Song Society.[4] This award recognises "unique or outstanding contributions to folk music, dance or song, distinguished service to the Society and/or exceptional contributions to the Society’s work".
Similar collections

The Traditional Ballad Index at the California State University at Fresno includes Roud numbers up to number 5000 with comments on the songs, but draws on fewer sources.[5][6]

The Folk Song Index is a collaborative project between the Oberlin College Library and a not-for-profit, educational organisation called Sing Out!. This is an index to traditional folk songs of the world, with an emphasis on English-language songs, containing over 62,000 entries and including over 2,400 anthologies.[7] Max Hunter's collection lists 1,600 songs, but each minor variant is given a distinct number.[8]

James Madison Carpenter's collection has 6,200 transcriptions and 1000 recorded cylinders made between 1927 and 1955. The index gives the title, first line and the name of the source singer. When appropriate, the Child number is given. It is still a largely unexploited resource, with none of the recordings easily available.[9]

The Essen folk song database is another collection that includes songs from non English-speaking countrie

This article is about the ethnic group called Latvians or Letts. For the inhabitants of Latvia, see Demographics of Latvia.
Latvians
latvieši Total population
(c. 1.55 million)
Regions with significant populations

Latvia 1 229 067 (2014)[1]
Other significant population centers:
United States 96,070–102,000 (2009)[2]
United Kingdom 39,000 (2011)[3][4]
Canada 27,870 (2006)[5]
Germany 27,752 (2014)[6]
Brazil 25,000 (2002)[7]
Ireland 20,593 (2011)[8]
Australia 20,124 (2011)[9]
Russia 20,068 (2010)[10]
New Zealand 20,000 (2004)[11]
Norway 8,077 (2013)[12]
Ukraine 5,079 (2001)[13]
Sweden 4,116 (2009)[14]
Denmark 3,799 (2012)[15]
Spain 3,711 (2011)[16]
Italy 2,689 (2014)[17]
Lithuania 2,300 (2012)[18]
Estonia 2,171 (2012)[19]
France 1,702 (2007)[20]
Belarus 1,549 (2009)[21]
Netherlands 1,400 (2002)[22]
Finland 1,164 (2013)[23]
Kazakhstan 1,123 (2009)[24]
Switzerland 736 (2006)[25]
Belgium 679 (2008)[26]
Iceland 654 (2013)[27]
Turkmenistan 500 (2010)
Moldova 400 (2010)
Portugal 383 (2010)[28]
Venezuela 300[29]
Poland 293 (2011)[30]
Georgia 200[31]
Religion

Predominantly Christianity: Lutheranism and Non-Religious with Roman Catholic, Latvian Orthodox and Dievturi minorities.
Historically Baltic Paganism.
Related ethnic groups
Lithuanians, Kursenieki, Latgalians, Semigallians, Livonians

Latvians (Latvian: latvieši; Livonian: leţlizt) are a Baltic ethnic group, native to what is modern-day Latvia and the immediate geographical region. They are also known as Letts,[38][39] although this term is obsolescent. The Latvian people share a common Latvian language.

Contents

1 History
2 Genetics
3 Culture
3.1 Influences
3.2 Religion
3.3 Language
4 See also
5 References

History

A Finnic-speaking tribe known as the Livs settled among the Latvians and modulated the name to "Latvis," meaning "forest-clearers," which is how medieval German, Teutonic settlers also referred to these peoples. The Germanic settlers referred to the natives as "Letts" and the nation to "Lettland", naming their colony Livonia or Livland.

The Latin form, Livonia, gradually referred to the whole territory of the modern-day Latvia as well as southern Estonia, which had fallen under minimal Germanic influence. Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic branch of the Indo-European family.
Genetics

Paternal haplogroups N1c-Tat and R1a are the two most frequent, reaching 39.9% each among ethnic Latvians.[citation needed][40] N1c-Tat mutation probably originated in South Siberia eight to nine thousand years ago and had spread through the Urals into the Europe where it is currently most common among Finno-Ugric and Baltic people. Balts, however, differ from Finno-Ugrics by the predominance of the N1c-L550 branch of N1c-Tat.[41] Haplogroup R1a is associated with the spread of Indo-European languages.

A recent autosomal study has shown that among other European populations, Latvians are genetically related to Lithuanians, followed distantly by Estonians.[42]
Culture
Influences
In 1649 settlement of the Latvian speaking Kursenieki spanned from Memel (Klaipėda) to Danzig (Gdańsk).

Latvians share a common language and have a unique culture with traditions, holidays, customs and arts. The culture and religious traditions have been somewhat influenced by Germanic, Scandinavian, and Russian traditions. Latvians have an ancient culture that has been archaeologically dated back to 3,000 B.C. Latvians maintained a considerable connection and trade with their neighbors, and near ethnic cousins the Finno-Ugrians, otherwise known contemporarily as Estonians and eventually Finns as well. The first indications of human inhabitants on the lands of modern Latvia date archaeologically to ~9,000 B.C., suggesting that the first settlers were hunters that stayed almost immediately following the end of the last Ice Age. Colonizers from the south arrived quickly, driving many of the hunters northward and polar ice caps melted further, or east, into modern-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. The Roman author Tacitus remarked upon the "Aestii" peoples, thought to be inhabitants of the modern Baltic lands, suggesting that they were abound with formidable, yet peaceful and hospitable people. The Latvian peoples remained relatively undisturbed until Papal intervention via the Germanic, Teutonic Order colonized Kurzeme (Courland in English, Kurland in German), beginning in the first-half of the 13th century. Papal decrees ordered the Teutonic Order to spread the "Word of the Lord" and the Gospel of Christianity throughout "uncivilized", "Pagan lands." Though these attempts to Christianize the population failed, and the Teutonic Order eventually redeployed southward, to the region of what was once known as East Prussia.

South-Eastern Latvia (Latgale), due to having a relatively large ethnic Russian population, has maintained a large Russian influence.
Religion
The Basilica of the Assumption in Aglona, the most important Roman Catholic church in Latvia.

Most of the religious Latvians belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, but in Eastern Latvia (Latgale) the Roman Catholic Church is predominant, a small minority of Latvians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church and other religious congregations.[43] In the late 18th century, a small but vibrant Herrnhutist movement played a significant part in the development of Latvian literary culture, before it was absorbed into the mainstream Lutheran denomination.
Language

The national language of the Latvian people is Latvian. Latvian is part of a unique linguistic branch of Indo-European languages: the Baltic languages.
See also

List of Latvians

Baltic people in the United Kingdom are those born or raised in the UK, or residents, who are of Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian origin. Baltic nations are a part of the wider region of Northern Europe and cooperate with the Nordic countries.

Contents

1 Overview
2 History, population and settlement
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links

Overview

Baltic countries together three countries on the south-eastern coast of the Baltic sea:

Estonia - sometimes considered Nordic, linguistically tied to Finland, while culturally and historically to Sweden and Denmark (Tallinn, the capital of the country, was built by the Danes), also Russia and Germany; Estonia is one of the least religious countries in Europe, before Lutheran Protestantism.[3]

Latvia - linguistically and culturally and tied to Lithuania and Germany, historically to all its neighbours as well as Sweden, Poland and Germany; like in the UK, the major religion is Protestantism with a significant number of Catholics and atheists.

Lithuania linguistically and culturally tied to Latvia, historically to Belarus, Poland, Ukraine and Germany, as well as Sweden, Denmark and Russia. Vast majority of the population is Catholic, with significant minority of atheists and Protestants. Once had an important Jewish community.

History, population and settlement

In the early 20th century, many Latvian and Lithuanian refugees began to settle in Glasgow and at its height in the 1950s, there were around 10,000 in the Glasgow area.[4]

During the first period of Estonian independence in the inter-war years, Great Britain, and, especially, London, became a magnet for many young people from Estonia wishing to learn English. This was made easier by a bi-lateral agreement drawn up by the British (Agreement A), which allowed foreigners to live with English families and get board and lodging in return for housekeeping duties. After the initial influx, the number of Estonian immigrants gradually reduced as people were more able to find work and, as a result, they gravitated to a few towns and cities, in particular London, Leicester and Bradford, with smaller communities in and around Bolton, Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Nottingham, Bournemouth and some north of the border in Scotland. In the early 1950s, many Estonians left to live in other countries, leaving less than 6000 in Britain.[5]

Significant numbers of Baltic people came to the UK in 1947 under a government backed scheme called 'Westward Ho'. The first group of Displaced Persons (DPs) from the British zone of occupation of Germany arrived in the UK in 1947, called the 'Balt Cygnets'.[6]
See also

Lithuanians in the United Kingdom
Lithuanian Scots

References

"Country-of-birth database". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
"Table 1.3: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, 60 most common countries of birth, April 2009 to March 2010". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 26 December 2010. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf
The Guardian (2006-01-23). "Lithuanians in Glasgow". Retrieved 2007-07-09.
UK Estonian Embassy (2008). "The Estonian community in the UK". Archived from the original on 27 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-17.

Dwyer, Claire; Bressey, Caroline (2008). "New geographies of race and racism". ISBN 978-0-7546-7085-8.

Bibliography

Burrell, Kathy and Panayi, Panikos: Histories and Memories: Latvians and Their History in Britain [1]
Budriuniene, Jolonta: Regeneration of the Lithuanian Emigrant Press: Fifteen Years' Experience [2]

External links

Anglija.lt - Website for Lithuanians living in the UK
The Baltic Music information centre UK
UK Baltic Study Group
Association of Estonians in Great Britain
Bradford Eesti Kodu Club
Great Britain Lithuanian Youth Association
Latvians in Britain
Latvian National Council
Straumeni or Catthorpe Manor - Latvian cultural centre
London Latvian Choir
Latvian Welfare Fund/Daugavas Vanagu Fonds
Rowfant House
Latvians in London
United London Latvian Church

>>118628645
Ты о себе высокого мнения, выблядок.

Estonia (Listeni/ɛˈstoʊniə/;[11][12] Estonian: Eesti [ˈeːsti]), officially the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariik), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe.[13] It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia (338.6 km).[14] Across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea,[15] covering 45,339 km2 (17,505 sq mi) of land, and is influenced by a humid continental climate.

Estonia is a democratic parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties, with its capital and largest city being Tallinn. With a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the OECD and the Schengen Area. Ethnic Estonians are Finnic people, and the official language, Estonian, is a Finno-Ugric language closely related to Finnish and the Sami languages, and distantly to Hungarian.

A developed country with an advanced, high-income economy[16] and high living standards, Estonia ranks very high in the Human Development Index,[7] and performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, education, and press freedom (third in the world in 2012).[17] Estonia is often described as one of the most wired countries in Europe.[18][19]

Contents

1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Viking Age
2.3 Danish Estonia
2.4 Middle Ages
2.5 Swedish Estonia
2.6 National awakening and Russian Empire
2.7 Independence
2.8 Second World War
2.8.1 Soviet occupation
2.8.2 German occupation
2.9 Soviet Estonia
2.10 Re-independence
2.11 Territorial history timeline
3 Geography
3.1 Administrative divisions
4 Politics
4.1 Parliament
4.2 Government
4.3 Law
4.4 Foreign relations
4.5 Military
5 Economy
5.1 Historic development
5.2 Resources
5.3 Industry and environment
5.4 Trade
6 Demographics
6.1 Urbanization
6.2 Religion
6.3 Society
6.4 Languages
6.5 Education and science
7 Culture
7.1 Literature
7.2 Media
7.3 Music
7.4 Architecture
7.5 Holidays
7.6 Cuisine
7.7 Sports
8 International rankings
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 Further reading
13 External links

Etymology

One hypothesis is that the modern name of Estonia originated from the Aesti described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania (ca. 98 AD).[20]

Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is still called in Icelandic, and close to the Danish, German, Dutch, Swedish and Norwegian term Estland for the country. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia.[21]

Esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921.[22][23]
History
Main article: History of Estonia
Prehistory
Main article: Ancient Estonia

Human settlement in Estonia became possible 11,000 to 13,000 years ago, when the ice from the last glacial era melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago at the beginning of the ninth millennium BC.
Kunda culture bone tools
Tools made by Kunda culture, Estonian History Museum

Evidence has been found of hunting and fishing communities existing around 6500 BC near the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. Bone and stone artefacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and in southern Finland. The Kunda culture belongs to the middle stone age, or Mesolithic period.

The end of the Bronze Age and the

>>118628401
Ты-то небось одфаг, видела есче тот Двач.
Мне настолько не с кем поговорить что я говорю с зеленозадым, пиздец, до чего докатился

rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do

>>118628892
>>118628401
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do

>>118628892
>>118628401
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do с

>>118623740 (OP)
Чувак все свидание пытается тебя завалить, причем он это прямо говорит, ты вроде как пишешь что не тупая, вроде как понимаешь что он мудак, чувствовала подвох и все равно не послала его нахуй за такие пиздатые разговоры.

В общем, ОП либо типичная шкура, в этом случае кроме как ебать тебя делать и нечего, либо мамкин траль.

>>118628892
>>118628401
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility t. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do

>>118628892
>>118628401
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom wуамarge noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do

>>118628892
Сколько сарказма в этих словах.

С зеленым не так плохо, как, например, с копипастой.

>>118629004
>либо мамкин траль
Это.

rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do>>118629004
>>118628892
>>118629096

>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

Perhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm.[36] The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.

The superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (Latin: Vironia), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa[37] The name Taarapita has been interpreted as "Taara, help!"/"Thor, help!" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or "Taara keeper"/"Thor keeper" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.
Danish Estonia
Main article: Danish Estonia
color historical map of Estonia from 1219 to 1572
Territories a part of the Kingdom of Denmark during 1219-1645

Denmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognized by the Pope.

The capital of Danish Estonia (Danish: Hertugdømmet Estland[38]) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.[39] Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.
painting 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse with knights motioning to Danish flag in the sky
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219 Battle of Lyndanisse

On St. George's Night (Estonian: Jüriöö ülestõus) 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.

In 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.[40] The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[41]
Middle Ages
Main articles: Livonian Crusade and Terra Mariana
color historical map of Livonia
Medieval Livonia
Kuressaare Castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.[42]

From 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[43] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[44] and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See.[45] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country[46] and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[47] In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority.[48] For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside.[49]

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[50] The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.[51] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .
Swedish Estonia
Main article: Swedish Estonia
Estonian capital Reval (now Tallinn) in the first half of the 17th century.
historical map of the Swedish Empire
Estonian territory as part of the Swedish Empire (1561–1721)

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used.[52] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Do

>>118629096
Уходи, мразь, тебе тут не рады.

>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were fiмrst mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

>>118629031
А хороший вайп, познавательный.

>>118629096
>>118628892
>>118629243
>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

>>118629096
>>118628892
>>118629243
>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

[Назад][Обновить тред][Вверх][Каталог] [Реквест разбана] [Подписаться на тред] [ Автообновление через 3]

>>118629145
Та вот судя по всему сегодня пошлю.

>>118629096
>>118628892
>>118629243
>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr fráв Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

[Назад][Обновить тред][Вверх][Каталог] [Реквест разбана] [Подписаться на тред] [ Автообновление через 3]

>>118629128
ЛОНГСЛИВ

>>118629096
>>118628892
>>118629243
>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geogrвмвм>>118629339
aphy III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century.[35]

[Назад][Обновить тред][Вверх][Каталог] [Реквест разбана] [Подписаться на тред] [ Автообновление через 3]

>>118614254
Фу, блядь, фу, нахуй.

>>118620461
Хуй знает. А как быть? Анонимайзеры часто довольно криво открывают, тором никогда не обмазывался и нет желания.

>>118613020
>ОФИЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДСТАВИТЕЛИ КОМПАНИИ ЖОЙТЕК
>всерьез воспринимать цену
На фасте тот же оригинал, только без надбавок рюске свиньям. Цена конечно тоже не с завода, но все же дешевле чем у рюске. Разницы нет абсолютно никакой.

>>118551786
Регайся по ссылке >>118551785

Читай начальные статьи, смотри видео.

>>118588192 (OP)
Человек без цели - самый жалкий человек

>>118629235
>Джва чая.
в твоём случае хуя

>>118627253
Не занижай, баобаб ты тупой. Средняя за специалиста в Москве от 5000$

выбью зубы и засуну тебе в глотку

>>118627950
Bonobo?

!!!!!!!!!!Ты чуешь странное хотенье из-за угла мои трусы как эдакое вот виденье как сторож жаждет мерзлоты

>>118628459
Ну, до двух вряд ли. Говядину надо только часа два-два с половиной варить свинью чуть меньше, но тоже долго. Вот до трёх сократить можно вполне

>>118624126
Я кАтлет

>>118627131
Бля, можно было бы просто мимо пройти или если уж доебались, попросить девушку полицию вызвать. А он решил повыёбываться, теперь всю жизнь за это расплачиваться будет.

>>118627461
Птицам что-то в корм добавляли. Типа стимуляторов, от которых их организм сгорал за полчаса, но на эти полчаса в нём появлялась ебейшая сила. Понятно, что одна из трёх долетала. Но зато какой эффект.

>>118588192 (OP)
Надо запретить пидарасов.

>>118629096
>>118628892
>>118629243
>>118629004
>>118629096
rly Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.

In his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.[24][25][26]
Iron Age metal plates and buttons from a hoard
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from Kumna[27]

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[28]

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.[29]

Early Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.
Viking Age
Main article: Oeselians
1 Kroon coil with viking ship sailing left
A stylised viking ship on the Estonian 1 Kroon from 1934

The Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (Danish: Øsel; German: Ösel; Swedish: Ösel), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III.[30] The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings).[31][32][33][34] Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th centurвy.[35]

[Назад][Обновить тред][Вверх][Каталог] [Реквест разбана] [Подписаться на тред] [ Автообновление через 3] >>118629339

>>118569675
О, уже классика.

>>118551241 (OP)
у дибила в очках видно отражение карт

>>118616248
То есть заказываю то, что ты скинул из любой ссылки+аккум и все? А смеси там какие-то?
А еще, я бросил курить больше полугода назад, обратно не развяжусь из-за электронки?

ДВАЧ
САП
АНОН
БИТАРД

4:20 - встаю, готовлю жратву, покамисть готовится одеваюсь, потом ем, пью кофе
5:00 - выхожу, жду лоховоз на свой завод
5:40 - 6:00 - переодеваюсь
6:00 - 12:00 - работаю
12:00 - 13:00 - перерыв, ем то что приготовил со вчерашнего вечера
13:00 - 17:30 - работаю
17:30 - 18:00 - моюсь, переодеваюсь
19:00 - дома
19:00 - 22:00 - готовлю жратву на завтра, смотю телик, скролю двач

Итогом 12 часов на работе, полтора часа в пути туда и обратно, в сутки выходит ~ 10 свободных часов что бы приготовить жратву, пожрать, принять душик и поспать. И так 7 дней в неделю, хочешь выходной нужно предупредить начальника за 3 дня, и то не факт что дадут + все это на адской жаре и с заводским быдлом

Я тут самый успешный?

Директор предприятия, 300к в месяц, задавайте вопросы

!!!!!!!!!!Какое нужное варенье под косячком помдылась ты как у воробушков сужденье как символ просит суеты

>>118626582
Маня, если хотят доебаться до тебя и развести на бабло, то не будут с тобой перетирать за жизнь и вести психологические разговоры. Сзади ебнут, обчистят и сьебут. А всякие НАЕЗДЫ и прочее для неуверенной малолетней петушни, которых даже всерьез воспринимать не надо.

!!!!!!!!!!Ты чуешь нужное мгновенье в ночномм горшке дают пизды как детородное сиденье как ангел грязной мерзлоты

!!!!!!!!!!Забыть бы нужное рожденье из головы стихов листы как rайфоломное паденье как гений тухлой школоты

>>118626518
>дырень твоей мамаши
>кек)00)

>>118625198 (OP)
Ты хотел сказать Клара и Адель Шикльрубер?

>>118605075
А с биллоу? И правда ли, что его сложно обслуживать? Заказал с фаста пару недель назад(первый девайс), вот теперь очкую, смогу ли я с ним совладать.

>>118557105
>Все равно с утра на учебу.
Есл тебе нет 18 лет, пиздуй нахуй из треда, кстати сказать.

>>118605531
Ну охуеть теперь, положить вату в проточки это просто неибацо скилл нужен, ага.

мАнты
свеклА
тефтЕли
жАлюзи
и сука грЕнки

>>118628292
Я имею ввиду при прочих равных. Я обычно беру те, что из твердых сортов пшеницы и всякую яичную лапшу. Ну и всякие стекляшки\собы и рисовые для вока.

>>118560065
мне лень играть по игроку, т.е. учиться после 3х лет уже не хочется, тошнит уже от столов.

все что знаю это диапазоны открытий с позиций, трибеты, контбеты в зависимости от борда и количества участников. со статами сыграл ну может 1-1.5% всех рук.

просто я до этого зарабатывал в других направлениях и там намного проще было, но захотелось попробовать покер. 3года считал что "дисперсия" виновата, лол

>>118624833
Мне кажется если потасовка происходит за полночь, когда школьники по идее должны спать, 5 рыл не будут ждать пока 1 нож достанет. Верно?
Другое дело подойти и ёбнуть, тогда совсем другой разговор. 4 оставшихся пересрут, ибо цинизм выветрился мигом, так как смерть видишь не каждый день.
Убийство это всегда дело рук одного. Если участвует контрагент, то убийства либо не происходит, либо убивают убивателя.
Так что прав, скорее всего погибший.

>>118627880
У вас дальнозоркость

>>118619295
Просвещайся.
http://truba.com/video/432222/

>>118627697
тут каждый третий такой.

>>118558412
Table Scan turbo, эт для кэшевиков, тебе т зачем?

Дрищ: в 31 год будешь иметь серьезные проблемы со спиной и внутр.органами по причине искривления позвоночника
Жиробас: в 31 год будешь иметь серьезные проблемы с сердцем и внутр.органами по причине давления жира

Что то хуйня, шо это

>>118588192 (OP)
Магнус не предавал, между прочим

>>118596323
и как меня это должно ебать? я даже этого не увижу

>>118625550
Что умеешь, то и ДЕЛАЙ, а потом ПРОДАВАЙ. Если умеешь только под себя срать -- поздравляю, ты подтерся билетом в жизнь.
Если не умеешь продавать, тогда найми пидорашку за гроши, который будет продавать твоё умение нихуя не делать, в итоге ты кладёшь весь гешефт в карман себе, грошик бросаешь пидорашке и повторяешь до наступления смерти (твоей, пидорашки или общей).

>>118625190
Нет, подобранная одежда и умение говорить.

!!!!!!!!!!Не помню четкое хотенье в твоих ноздрях стихов листы как у воробушков паренье как лизер на хрен наркоты

>>118627454
Где ты видел толстоту в треде, хуесос? Это анонимная имиджборда, от слова имидж. Тут нет смысла врать

>>118626729
>>118626858
>>118627612
>>118626864
Репорт фашикам.

>>118628966
В колхозах - да, говорят.

>>118616271
Наверное было актуально в 90е, сейчас с нынешнем образованием уже хуй знает

>>118623679
На ком катаешь?

>>118622610
Если не осторожность, то да.
Я про умысел говорю.
Скорее всего всплывёт, ибо нечаяно китайским говном убить нереально, что не раз доказывалось.

>>118625031
>народу
Да ладно

>>118588192 (OP)
Хочется полизать сисечку.

>>118605710
Дохуя положи - гарики. Мало - протечки. Нахуй это говно, когда есть простейшая подканистра, с которой проебаться очень тяжело?

>>118626150
С колесиками

>>118620497 (OP)
>школяр пырнул другого ножом-бабочкой из-за того что тот задел его тян
>тот образованный, вполне адекватный малый
Да, умище и адекватность так и хлещут. Да пусть вырежут друг друга и тянку заодно можно, все-равно она шлюха.

>>118627583
>хлеб с картошкой

Щито нитак?

>>118609793
>1 пик
>коп - негр
>задержанные - не негры и даже не латиносы
Чувствую тут подвох, но не могу понять, в чем он.

>>118557008
Почему отпугиваю? Не обязательно же так делать. Я просто проигрывал деньги, в какой-то момент мне это надоело и я решил начать учиться.

>>118614254
Фу, блядь, фу, нахуй.

>>118622896
Гатариотпущ не человек, отрепортил

!!!!!!!!!!Открою конское ученье в твоих ноздрях дают пизды как мимолётное сношенье как лизер просит наготы

>>118603003
Кем работаешь?

>>118626592
>Один просто, из-за того что делать нехуй было или из-за того что бутылка валялась на дороге, пнул бутылку и нечаяно попал тне по ноге. С тней шел быдло-лыцарь, и сказал что бы пинающий немедленно извинился перед дамой(он же лыцарь), пинающий сказал что типо нечаяно и нихуя страшного. Лыцаря это разозлило и он потребовал немедленно склонить колено перед дамой и попросить прощения. Тогда футболист сказал что , непойдеите ли вы нахуй сер. Лыцарь сказал- Сам сер и еще и нихуя не Марадонна. Футболист сказал- ебаный ОП хуй ТНН и завязалась дуэль, шпаги не было, поэтому лыцарь достал бабочку(порядочные лыцари всегда носят в карманах бабочки или выкидухи) и порешил футболиста. Потом преклонил перед дамой колено, она его посвятила в пиздолисы, той же бабочкой и сьебалась.

>>118626264
>Что это
Это рейхсмин.пропаганды и культуры.

>>118629301
Рандомхую нет, но там можно выехать за 80-100 км от города и потеряться нахуй По весне найдет медведь

Охуеть сколько я тут настрочил, время уходить из треда и так очень много помог.

>>118552314
Ну и что.
Ту же сотку - катать получается у очень многих. А это уже неплохой заработок (в районе трешки в месяц).
Полтиннк катать может вообще каждый, кто серьезно этим займется (обучением, регулярной работой и прочее).

На том же нл25 многие усердные реги делают 1к бачей (что в нынешние времена лучше многих зарплат).

Никаких проблем нету.
Вы вон тоже все далеко не Фейкеры,а в ЛОЛ же играете и удовольствие получаете или что там получаете.

Так и тут, не обязательно подняться на самую вершину или хотя бы очень высоко, чтобы начать зарабатывать на жизнь покером.

Учитывая, что сейчас средняя зп в рашке около 700 +/- баксов - эт уровень любого рега нл25 в месяц.
Вот и делайте выводы.

>>118616271
Лол, интересно, как автор агитки видит "отзыв русских программистов"? Типа, сказать уже давно как не гражданам РФ "пиздуйте обратно"?

>>118627990
Зачем есть рис ложкой, ты у нее не спросил?
борщ варить не сложно, но долго, да

>>118624454
Облизал бы ей ляшки.

>>118627580
Хуябинск, блядь. Новосиб, тебе ж сказали. ДС-3 = Новосибирск.

>>118626935
Да, 100к с одного проекта (2 часа)

>>118627316
А толстовка с капюшоном это ХУДИ

Да умирает покер. Амая убивают покерстарс, хайроллеры уже свалили, недобитки еле собирают 25\50. хайстекс гиперы мертвы. Живые только мтт, но там даже нл_профит опустился до 20-30 долларовых турниров.

перспективы нет. Проще выучить английский и стримить себе твич

>>118625852
С подметальной машиной!

>>118598923
У меня тоже. Но, как я сказал, у меня дизель, который не хочет грется на холостых. Поэтому, что я сразу поеду, что через 5-10 минут - будет дергаться.

>>118624116
А у бабки на рынке по 60 см урки. сечешь даун?

РЕФРЕШЕР

>>118607077
Хорошая коробка для начала

>>118604556
Курят сигареты. А выебываться сам понял.

>>118616548
Из за омского трамвая я попаду в ад((( пиздец, ну анон, ну бля

че?

!!!!!!!!!!Хреново четкое везенье на кладбище поют дрозды как мимолётное паренье как жопа в пене красоты

10 минут. На 10 минут хватило твоей игры. Спасибо, ОП, я съебал.

>>118625722
Я люблю ее. И не просто как исполнителя, а как женщину.

>>118626041
Ждал скриммера.

Есть фото тян, за которую он вступился?

>>118627950
Bonobo?

!!!!!!!!!!Забыть бы нужное мгновенье из головы ебались мы как эдакое вот вращенье как водка тухлой наготы

>>118608346
По ссылке цены актуальные.
Пруф: https://youtu.be/jaG47yLRmsI?t=1m2s

Я НИХУЯ НЕ ПОНИМАЮ. ОТКУДА У ЛЮДЕЙ ДЕНЬГИ? Кризис-хуизис, в магазах народ как брал полные тележки жратвы, так и берет, под окнами стоит выставка достижений зарубежного автопрома, машину дешевле 700к хуй найдешь. ГДЕ ОНИ БЛЯДЬ БЕРУТ ДЕНЬГИ?Я работаю быдлоадмином, получаю 20к в месяц, если буду рвать жопу и работать без выходных, получу 30, ну 40к. Чтобы купить такую тачку или квартиру мне нужно лет 10 не жрать, не пить, а просто въябывать. Или все воруют? Поясни, мудрый анон, как жить?

>>118607965
Ты имеешь ввиду Марка Твена?

>>118625439
его всем внушали

>>118622700
Собаку у тебя за щекой убил, проверяй.

>>118627411
Разные по форме макароны готовят по-разному

вообще, нет, не особенно

>>118625416
А какие ККИ не говно и с балансом. Алсо, что в твоём понимании баланс в ККИ?

Тред не читал. На пеньки рычать уже советовали?

>>118617966
Но я принял прибежище в дацане и прочитал множество книг, общался с ламами...

>>118553287
То есть если опытный покерист создаст новый акк, то он полюбасу просрет 50$?

Рыбку с картохой

!!!!!!!!!!Не помню вкусное хотенье в твоих ноздрях ебались мы как у воробушков теченье как водка чистой красоты

>>118563935
Глупый вопрос, математика само собой остается неизменной. Но один хуй ты про все это узнаешь из видосиков походу обучения, ибо это пережевывается в видосиках для новичков по сто тысяч раз.

>>118588192 (OP)
Твой стиль – залупа, ты похож на Леди Гагу.

>>118627498
Не надо передергивать, червь мамкин ты пидор иди на хуй

>>118624651
Я получаю 210к и трачу из них около 50-60. Остальное я откладываю на депозит и немного в ETF.

Я почти ничего трачу, фактически. Но хорошо питаюсь. Питание для меня крайне важно. У меня минимум одежды. Правда, неплохой. И вообще минимум вещей. Только средньнеький нубук за 500 евро. Телефон плохенький за 100 евро. Я его использую как плеер и изредка как камеру (например, снять, как делаю присед, доседаю ли, ну или жим контролирую).

Все свои вещи я могу запаковать в две большие сумки и переехать в любой момент.

Я никогда не брал кредитов и даже не думаю брать.

Странно, скажите вы? Может быть. Я рос в 90х, когда фраза "нет денег" звучала почти каждый день из уст родителей. Я привык жить скромно. Я просто не понимаю, зачем мне все эти побрякушки?

У меня было 4 машины, 3 последние из которых довольно приличные. Было время, хотелось выебнуться. Ну там перед тёлочками.

5 лет назад я продал последнюю (машину), пересел на велосипед и внезапно почувствоал себя невероятно свободным. Мне просто не нужна машина.

Мне не нужны никакие побрякушки, я не гонюсь за модой на гаджеты, я путешесетвую только засчёт работодателя в командировках. При этом я был в штатах, Китае и по всей Европе.

Я не играю в игры. Они мне не интересны. Мне куда интереснее почитать научную литературу. Или даже написать статью самому.

Наверно, всё-таки стоит отметить, что я живу в западной европе, а не в России или Украине. В этих двух странах без машины, конечно, тяжко.

Есть ещё такие, как я?

"Как много есть на свете вещей, которые мне совсем не нужны!" (Сократ)

>>118626252
/e уровня /b

>>118626894
За шмот устал пояснять

>>118618132
>ОРСК

>>118624043
Ох какой ехидный Йоба.

РАБота

>>118596989
Хуевое сравнение. Свет убрать - это как зубы или обувь почистить. Есть чуханы, которым лишнее движение лень, а есть нормальные люди
мимо

>>118607077
Хорошая коробка для начала

>>118627649
СЛАДКИЙ выстрел, ты имел ввиду?

!!!!!!!!!!Забыть бы некое ученье передо мной стихов листы как мимолётное паренье как лизер жаждет красоты

>>118628000
Раза в два ниже в первые месяцы, исп. срок, стажировка, хуё-моё. Потом может и будут платить указанную.

>>118603975
золотой чтоли?

>>118628577
Про Майка Тайсона почитай уебок

>>118608622
Лови ссылку, а то запаришься искать https://vape-salon.ru/catalog/category_127_item_702.html

>>118625482
Проверь щитовидку и говно на глистов.

>>118626070
Какие коньки, дебик))) +12 на улице.

>>118588192 (OP)
Деус Вульт!

Gg

>>118622015 (OP)
Едой.

>>118628536
НЯШНЫЙ, НЯША, НЯШНО СУКА КИПИТ

>>118603505 (OP)
бампка

Оп-хуй
Тред говно
Сажи въеби

>>118622296
ffmpeg

>>118607009
> руки из жопы кудах
Да, покупай испаритель в 2016м, только смотри чтоб скилл был.
Алсо кайфунодебилы тоже помню пиздели на пряморукость, попутно обливаясь жижей из воздуховодов. А я только посмеивался с этих ущербов, сидя на безотказном тайфуне.

>>118625029
Не было анонса

>>118624516
Просто мало кто знает, что буддисты ебанутые на всю голову и с радостью вырезают мусульман
Нихуя это не религия добра, просто наш обыватель посматривает на рафинированную западную версию буддизма

ПЕННИ

Кто блядь хлеф не закрыл.

В свинач скотина.

>>118609543
Ты не из новосиба случаем?

>>118629559
Хуй соси

>>118627305
>>118627327
долбоёбы, это Покрышкин А.И.
ДС - 3 это славный город Новосибирск

>>118628439
слава украине!

Анон, не бампуй просто так, на вопрос лучше ответь. >>118603483

>>118613667
Взял в рассрочку ноут с первым взносом в 6 тысяч за 32 к, сейчас уже стоит 36, лол. Год назад стоил 26.

>>118626450
> Так в новом ранкеде будут карты ОНЛИ классического набора
Классик и текущие дополнения этого и предыдущего года. В этом году это лига, турнир, черная гора и еще что-то вышедшее новое. Гномы и накс, вышедшие в 14 году, не играют.

>>118628686
Говнорег с ксячным или вовсе отсутствующим ИК-фильтром

>>118628649
А как называть тех кто смотрит аниме тогда?

>>118628767
Реально там прыгнуть в вулкан?

>>118594693
ДА

>>118558340
В среднем все играют все равно 6-8 столов, иначе качество падает, винрейт падает, все катится в пизду.
Не, ну есть уникумы, но их мало.
Остальные в основном на 15+ столах - тупо рейк месят около нуля. Ибо хорошего винрейта не добиться с таким количеством никогда, т.к. слишком много распределять внимания нужно.

>>118609608
Что это за ёбаный бред? Так ведь можно про что угодно сказать.
> Какая наука? Какое устройство мира? Они 400 лет вели войну с религией, которая проиграла БЛИНАМ.

>>118627242
тебе ли не похуй?заебал уже сам вбрасый своё, как же ты заебал ныть

Сегодня в 0 откатал.
мимо_рег_NL100

!!!!!!!!!!Не помню чудное печенье в ночномм горшке ебались мы как мимолётное сплетенье как травка женской хренаты

300к в месиц
плитка кафел
кафе охран работал

>>118625020
Я это услышал

ПИДОРАСЫ Я КАЧОК, А ВЫБЛЯДИ НА ГОРШОК!

>>118626310
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawarma
Может все таки шаверма?

>>118628805
Годнота, жаль только, что мурлоки не нужны

ЛОЛ АРУ))00)

>>118620497 (OP)
>пырнул ножом...из-за тян
>ИЗ-ЗА ТЯН
Убийца долбоёб-бабораб thread

>>118629070
Лол, такой-то троллинг.
Я тоже устаю от простой прогулки, мёрзну всегда, спина всегда адово болит, особенно поясница.
>>118629267
Ну, давай почту.

>>118559882
Если не бьешь нл2/нл5 то сорян, в покере тебе действительно делать нечего. Мб ты не смотрел теорию? во Флопзилле разбирал?

Давайте сравним цены.
Я вчера на коньках катался на ВДНХ - 450 рублей

>>118629543
Сак май дик, ступид кид

>>118627525
РОРШАХ

>>118629187
У меня ещё металлическая плоская есть

ОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬ

>>118629309
Сталин?

>>118629309
ракосовский

>>118612645
Кто тебе сказал что оригинал 6к стоит? Папироска.рф?

>>118605651
Речь не о том, что мало ватт, а о том, что нет смысла покупать за те же деньги двухакумный мод, коих яне помню ни одного приличного, когда можно взять практически любой трехакумник и радоваться.

>>118625031
>именно в донбассе народу теперь вообще пиздец.
И че?

>>118625614
Так судят же по тому, что творится здесь и сейчас. Кого ебет, что почившие сто лет в обед самураи при всей своей агрессии были буддистами, или, что когда-то приверженцы Ислама могли похвастаться большим человеколюбием, чем христиане в Европе? Это уже не имеет значения, как и то, что написано в религиозных текстах. Важно лишь одно: какие поступки совершают люди, причисляющие себя к той или иной религии. И тут, если посмотреть на Россию, какой-нибудь буддистский регион вроде Калмыкии никогда не славился тем, что его выходцы нарушают ПДД на заниженных девятках, доебываются до случайных прохожих, что те одеты "не по шариату" или вроде того.

>>118609500 (OP)
А что со второй не так? Сидит в макдаке ест просто.

>>118620497 (OP)
http://steamcommunity.com/id/apostaling/inventory/#730
Инвентарь пропадает. :(

>>118609500 (OP)
Проиграл с 3й пикчи. Откуда люди такую хуйню про буддизм выдумывают?

мимо-буддист

>>118626176
СОГЛАСЕН, ПИДАРАХИ ПРОСТО РАБОТАТЬ НЕ ХОТЯТ. ХОЧЕШЬ ЗАРАБАТЫВАТЬ БОЛЬШЕ?? ТАК СМЕНИ РАБОТУ, ДОЛБОЕБ! УСТРОЙСЯ ПРОГРАМИСТОМ
сорь за капс, заебали, бесят уже

>>118607077
Скажу evic vtc mini

>>118629563
тут весь двач таких

>>118596822
>Люди не вычищающие снег с крыши напоминают мне патлачей не моющих волосы.
Люди, напидоривающие по 5 минут машину напоминают мне гейстеров, которые делают себе укладку.

>>118595717
Да, даже успешнее меня.

>>118628439
слава украине!

!!!!!!!!!!Хреново чудное печенье в твоих ноздрях забилась ты как эдакое вот сиденье как травка грязной срамоты

>>118628303
Нассала

>>118627945
Они одинаковые

>>118627620
>выпилят скоро
Wild? Не, не слышал.

173/54 дрыщ-кун, здоров как бык

ОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬ
ОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬ
ОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬ

ГГ ВП ГАЙС СИ Ю НЕКСТ РАУНД

>>118622127
Чего мне до фулл контроля не хватает? Погребение и аукинайки есть.

СУКА ЗАЕБАЛ ФЛУДИТЬ

>>118569675
>2016
>покер ведь это чистый рандом

Обдристался тебе на лицо.
Благодаря вам, в покере все еще можно зарабатывать

>>118496892
ржу как даун

>>118624438
Найн.

>>118627580
Хуябинск, блядь. Новосиб, тебе ж сказали. ДС-3 = Новосибирск.

ХУЙ

пизда сиськи абрикос

>>118610055
Жалко, что не голове думающего

>>118556956
Ну, я здесь, и буду тут еще долго. Все равно с утра на учебу.

>>118626985
€то потому шо он пiдор

>>118622360 (OP)
185/62, с девушками проблем нет, холод переношу лучше большинства людей, про дрыща действительно могут начать заебывать, просто грубо затыкаю и начинаю овнить, больше не повторяется.Хуй знает о чем ты, сходи к врачу спроси что тебе делать.

тв че собака?

Бамп трогательной картинкой.

>>118627089
А что такое свитшот?

>>118629563
тут весь двач таких

>>118628160
Всегда ел с хлебом и было норм.
А вот макароны да, с хлебом не поешь.А так хочется

>>118618644
Спасибо!

80 тысяч, маляр-штукатур изи мани!!

!!!!!!!!!!Очкуешь свинское хотенье в твоих ноздрях явилась ты как rайфоломное паденье как правда липкой суеты

>>118626764
Да это ньюфажик вконтактовский рвется просто.

>>118628271
А если гос.учреждение, вроде не должно быть наебки?

>>118594440
И чем же ты занят с 10 вечера до 4 утра?

ОТПРАВИЛ ЗА ЩЕКУ

>>118599042
Посмотрим, как долго ты протянешь на спидах и внутреннем самоподсосе. Увидимся через годик, в психдиспансере.

ОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬОХУЕННО, НАУЧИ ТАКЖЕ ВАЙПАТЬ

>>118629024
>паста
Это рисовая лапша в воке.

>>118629065
Исключительно для анонимусов стараюсь.

>>118629120
>>118629306
Мне хватает.

>>118629187
Особенно звук металлической ложки скребущей по миске хорош.

>>118625460
нофапаон. недельный

>>118627286
ДАЕДАЛУС

>>118605710
Ты меня успокоил, анончик. Добра тебе.

>>118618644
Спасибо!

СКВИРТ

иы чё сука

>>118612097
cабтанк slowfix
ну либо можешь отдельно взять евик и этот сабтанк https://www.fasttech.com/products/0/10012000/2303800-subtank-plus-subtank-v2-styled-occ-clearomizer

>>118570647

ПАТАМУШТА НА СТАРЗАХ ГСЧ ПАТКРУЧИН, А НА ПОКИДОМЕ НОРМ))0

Не давай советов, если сам нихуя не знаешь

Зарабатывать реально. Но легких денег в покере уже давным давно нет. Игра с каждым днем становится хуже. Я бы не советовал сейчас начинать. Возможно покеру совсем недолго осталось.

миморег нл25

>>118623657
О, декбилдер подъехал с 25 ранга. Только там твоя хуйня играет.

>>118597588
>что такое автозапуск

Сигналка, которая умеет запускать двигатель с брелка.
Ставится на любое ведро, даже на карбюраторный таз можно поставить при желании.
Стоит немного дороже обычной сигналки.

ррп

>>118627819
Зожник проецирует что люди с вредными привычками не могут в спорт

>>118627055
ЧЕРГИД

>>118629235
>Джва чая.
в твоём случае хуя

>>118622015 (OP)
Макароны с "колбасой".

Я хуею.
Какие же вы невероятные дрищи.
Я 172/60 и меня все упрекают в том, какой я худой. Что же там с вами, лол?

НЯ
СЭНПАЙ
ДЕСУ

>>118627952
Омг, лишь бы себя оправдать

>>118606597
Разбери её и помой с мылом

>>118623489
Лол, а мне в самом первом бустере как только начал играть, упала Сильвана. Я думал, что всем в качестве заманушки в начале упадетк акая-нибудь классная штука.

Потом еще падали Иллидан, а на днях бесполезный Громмок.

>>118623686
Но ОП станет еще выше как пидор.

25 лвл работаю 5 лет в гбу шарашке. раньше зп была 33 потом начальника сняли, новый хуй провел оптимизации, теперь дело постепенно идет к 20. чсх, работать почти перестал, просто прихожу в офис к обеду посмотреть мемасики, ибо считаю ниже своего достоинства минетить за такие блядь гроши. пытаюсь сменить работу, хожу по собесам уже три года - отовсюду гонят, пушо считается, что после гбу учреждения ты что-то вроде опущенного. думаю в течение года перейти на фриланс, пока не деградировал. такие дела.

>>118623740 (OP)
Какая же она охуенной была в фильм. Хотел бы оказаться на месте Хирша ирл.

Убийца сейчас в сети,отвечает в лс.
Ап!

!!!!!!!!!!Очкуешь сданное печенье из головы помдылась ты как психотропное сношенье как травка чистой суеты

>>118627797
Сразу вспомнился смоук из мк.

>>118619819
И что? Чурки беснуются, дальше чито? Это плохо, да. Но ты хочешь сказать что подобное только в РФ происходит? Не смеши. Одно дело шутить про спившихся потреотов, а другое дело приписывать всем кавказское видео с армейским беспределом. Тем более чурки были наказаны, а за такую провинность их родственники отпиздюхают пиздец как. Паррень в итоге на бутулку так и не сел, ясен хуй, она же пластиковая с широким коротким горлом